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History and Origin of the Runes

What we now know as the runic alphabet seems to have developed from
two distinct sources - one magical, one literate. Pre-runic symbols,
or hällristningar, have been found in various Bronze Age rock
carvings, primarily in Sweden. Some of these symbols are readily
identifiable in the later alphabets, while others represent ideas and
concepts which were incorporated into the names of the runes (sun,
horse, etc.). The exact meanings of these sigils are now lost to us,
as is their original purpose, but they are believed to have been used
for divination or lot-casting, and it is fairly certain that they
contributed to the magical function of the later runic alphabets.

There is some debate over the origin of the "alphabet" aspect of the
runes. Cases have been made for both Latin and Greek derivation, and
several scholars are once again arguing in favour of both these
theories. However, the strongest evidence still seems to point to a
North Italic origin. The parallels between the two alphabets are too
close to be ignored, particularly in the forms of the letters, as well
as in the variable direction of the writing, and certain structural
and even symbolic characteristics. This would also explain why so many
of the runes resemble Roman letters, since both Italic and Latin
scripts are derived from the Etruscan alphabet (itself a branch of the
Western Greek family of alphabets). This theory would place the
original creation of the futhark sometime before the 1st. century
c.e., when the Italic scripts were absorbed and replaced by the Latin
alphabet. Linguistic and phoenetic analysis points to an even earlier
inception date, perhaps as far back as 200 b.c.e.

When the northern tribes began integrating the Italic alphabets into
their own symbolic system, they gave the letters names relating to all
aspects of their secular and religious lives, thus transforming their
simple pictographs into a magical alphabet which could be used for
talismans, magical inscriptions and divination.

The Elder Futhark

The name "futhark", like the word "alphabet", is derived from the
first few letters in the runic sequence, which differs considerably
from the order of the Latin alphabet and is unique amongst alphabetic
scripts. The futhark originally consisted of 24 letters, beginning
with F and ending with O, and was used by the northern Germanic tribes
of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Northern Germany. This form of the
runes is known as the Elder, or Germanic Futhark.

The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc

_The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc_

Sometime around the fifth century AD, changes occurred in the runes in
Frisia (the area around the northern Netherlands and north-western
Germany). This period coincided with the Anglo-Saxon invasions from
this area and the appearance of similar runes in the British Isles.
The forms of several of the runes changed, notably the runes for A/O,
C/K, H, J, S, and Ng. Also, changes in the language led to between
five and nine runes being added to the alphabet to compensate for the
extra sounds, and several runes were given different corresponding
letters. This alphabet has become known as the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc.

The Younger Futhark

_The Younger Fuþark (Danish variation)_

In Scandinavia, the Elder Futhark remained in use until some time
around the eighth century (the time of the Eddas), when drastic
changes in the Old Norse language occurred, and corresponding changes
in the runic alphabet were made to accommodate the new sounds.
However, unlike the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, the Younger Futhark (as it is
now called) reduced the number of runes from 24 to 16, and several
runes came to represent multiple sounds. The forms of the runes were
also changed and simplified. There are several variations of this
futhark - Danish, long branch, Norwegian, dotted, etc.

This form of the runic alphabet spread from Denmark north into Sweden
and Norway, and was carried into Iceland and Greenland by the Vikings.
It is possible that they were also brought to North America with the
Vinland expeditions, but so far no authenticated inscriptions have
been found.

The Runic Revival

The runes, primarily in their Younger form, remained in common use
until well into the 17th. century. Up until this time, they were found
on everything from coins to coffins, and in some places their use was
actually sanctioned by the Church. Even the common people knew simple
runic spells, and the runes were frequently consulted on matters of
both public and private interest. Unfortunately, as with most of the
magical arts, they were officially banned in 1639 as part of the
Church's efforts to "drive the devil out of Europe". The rune masters
were either executed or went underground, and the knowledge of the
runes may well have died with them. Some say that the knowledge was
passed on in secret, but it is almost impossible to separate ancient
traditions from more modern esoteric philosophies in such cases.

Perhaps the darkest period in the history of runic studies was their
revival by German scholars connected with the Nazi movement in the
20's and 30's. What began as a legitimate folkloric resurgence
unfortunately became so tainted by Nazi ideology and racism that the
research from this period was rendered all but useless to any serious
student of runic lore.

After the Second World War, the runes fell into disfavour as a result
of their association with Naziism, and very little was written about
them until the fifties and sixties. It was not until the mid-eighties,
with the widespread appeal of the "New Age" movement and the revival
of Pagan religions (especially the Asatru movement) that the runes
regained their popularity as both a divinatory system and a tool for
self-awareness.

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References

1. http://www.stateoftheart.nl/phenomenon/frames/subjects/occult/occult.htm
2. http://www.ancientwhispers.com/cgi-bin/bpwork2.cgi?advert=NonSSI&page=03
3. http://www.ancientwhispers.com/bp