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_Cosmic Microwave Background_

[1]Genesis of Big Bang Cosmology

[2]Big Bang Prediction of CMBR

[3]Discovery of CMBR

[4]Cosmology and the CMBR

[5]Cosmic Background Explorer

[6]Anisotropies in the CMBR

[7]CMBR and Alternative Cosmologies

[8]Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (Added 12 Feb 2003)

[9]Concordance Cosmology (Added 12 Feb 2003)

[10]Webpages

_Genesis of Big Bang Cosmology_

The idea for what we now call _Big Bang Cosmology_ first came to light
in the work of the Belgian astronomer [11]Georges Lemaître (1-3), who
based the idea on [12]Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity,
combined with [13]Alexander Friedmann's demonstration that the
universe cannot be static (4), and [14]Edwin Hubble's demonstration
that the universe appears to be expanding (5). Einstein did not
initally agree with the idea of an expanding universe, and added a
term now called the _cosmological constant_ to his equations of
general relativity, in order to force his theory to allow for a static
universe. However, once Hubble made known his evidence for an
expanding universe, Einstein recanted the cosmological constant, and
accepted the expanding universe. Today, Georges Lemaître is generally
recognized as the "father" of the expanding universe cosmology.

Through the 1950's & 1960's, The Big Bang (as it was derisively titled
by [15]Fred Hoyle) was one of several cosmological models jousting for
supremacy. As time passed, the others slipped behind, as observational
evidence cosistently pushed the Big Bang forward. Today, Big Bang
cosmology is standard, accepted by the vast majority of astronomers,
astrophysicists & cosmologists, as the theory which best matches
observation.

1. _A world of constant mass and variable radius, taking into
consideration the radial speed of the extragalactic nebulae_
Georges Lemaître
Monograph, Published in French, 1927.
2. [16]Expansion of the universe, A homogeneous universe of constant
mass and increasing radius accounting for the radial velocity of
extra-galactic nebulae
Georges Lemaître
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 91: 483-490,
March 1931
3. [17]Expansion of the universe, The expanding universe
Georges Lemaître
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 91: 490, March
1931
4. _Über die Krümmung des Raumes_ (On the Curvature of Space)
A. Friedmann
Z. Phys. 10: 377-386, 1922
5. _A relation between distance and radial velocity among
extragalactic nebulae_
Edwin P. Hubble
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 15: 169-173, 1929.

_Big Bang Prediction of CMBR_

The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) was one of the early
predictions of Big Bang Cosmology (BBC). Physicist [18]Richard C.
Tolman had shown by theory in 1934 that an expanding universe would be
filled with a thermal radiation (6), and in 1948 [19]George Gamow (7)
and [20]Ralph Alpher & [21]Robert Herman (8,9) predicted that our
universe of today should be filled with background thermal radiation,
at a temperature of about 5 Kelvins (5K). Numerous estimates of what
the temperature of such a background should be followed, ranging from
as low as about 3K to as high as 50K. But too little was known about
the theory of the expanding universe, and its physical consequences,
to do any better than that at the time.

6. _Relativity, Thermodynamics, and Cosmology_
Richard C. Tolman
Clarendon Press, Oxford University, 1934
7. _Evolution of the Universe_
George Gamow
Nature 162: 680-682, 1948
8. _Evolution of the Universe_
R.A. Alpher & R.C. Herman
Nature 162: 774-775, 1948
9. [22]Remarks on the Evolution of an Expanding Universe
R.A. Alpher & R.C. Herman
Physical Review 75(7); 1089-1095, April 1, 1949

_Discovery of CMBR_

Aware of the earlier predictions, a number of cosmologists were
designing experiments in the late 1950's and early 1960's, in an
attempt to actually detect the predicted CMBR. However, the discovery
was actually made by two scientists who were not looking for it, and
were unaware of the predictions.

[23]Arno Penzias & [24]Robert Wilson were trying to study the radio
emission from the halo of the Milky Way, and were trying to account
for all sources of noise and confusion. They eventually identified or
compensated for all of these except one. Only after a chance meeting
with well known physicist [25]R.H. Dicke, did they all realize that it
was the CMBR that Dicke had searched for in vain earlier, and was
about to look for again. The three of them published their results in
a pair of papers in 1965 (10,11), initally presenting the effective
temperature of this emission as 3.5±1.0 Kelvins. Penzias & Wilson
shared the [26]1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery.

10. [27]A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s
A.A. Penzias & R.W. Wilson
Astrophysical Journal 142: 419-421, July 1965
11. [28]Cosmic Black-Body Radiation
R.H. Dicke _et al._
Astrophysical Journal 142: 414-419, July, 1965

_Cosmology and the CMBR_

The significance of the discovery of the CMBR is that it was
_predicted_ by the basic physical theory of the expanding universe,
first laid down decades before, by Georges Lemaître. While the
cosmology wars of the 1940's and 1950's pitted several competing
models against one another, only the Big Bang had predcited the
necessity of the CMBR as a consequence of the theory. So it's only
natural that its discovery gave support to that theory. The supporters
of alternative cosmologies tried to bring such a background radiation
out of their models after the fact, but always with unsatisfying,
arbitrary tricks. Only the Big Bang actually requires that there be a
CMBR. The existence of the CMBR was one of several strong reasons that
developed during the 1960's & 1970's, which drove Big Bang cosmology
into its premiere position amongst scientists.

In the case of the CMBR, its major selling point was that just any old
CMBR would not do. Big Bang cosmology required that this CMBR be both
_thermal_ and _isotropic_. "Thermal" means that the spectrum (power as
a function of wavelength or frequency) has to match the theoretical
spectrum expected from a source of a given temperature, radiating
energy solely because of its temperature. Such a source is called a
_blackbody_, and it is said to have a _blackbody spectrum_.
"Isotropic" means that it has to look essentially the same in all
directions, which implies that the CMBR is not only thermal, but shows
essentially the same temperature, no matter which direction one looks
in.

Subsequent observations confirmed, as well as it could be confirmed by
limited, ground based observations, that the CMBR discovered by
Penzias & Wilson indeed had the required thermal spectrum, and was
indeed isotropic (12-15 for example). These two facts alone are strong
indicators that the CMBR is the predicted relic of Lemaître's
_primeval atom_, and argues against alternative cosmologies that are
still popular in some corners, though very much the minority view
today.

12. [29]Measurement of the Cosmic Microwave Background at 8.56-mm
Wavelength
David T. Wilkinson
Physical Review Letters 19(20): 1195-1198, November 13, 1967
13. [30]New Measurements of the Cosmic Microwave Background at lambda
= 3.2 cm and lambda = 1.58 cm - Evidence in Support of a Blackbody
Spectrum
R.A. Stokes, R.B. Partridge & David T. Wilkinson
Physical Review Letters 19(20): 1199-1202, November 13, 1967
14. [31]Measurement of the millimetric background radiation
P. Grenier, J. Roucher & B. Talureau
Astronomy and Astrophysics 53(2): 249-251, December 1976
15. [32]The cosmic microwave background radiation
R.W. Wilson
Reviews of Modern Physics 51(3): 433-446, July 1979

_Cosmic Background Explorer_

Observing the CMBR was quite an effort for anybody. Typical
experiments could only see a small part of the sky at a time, and
effects of the earth's atmosphere and terrestrial noise limited the
effectiveness & sensitivity of observations. Was the CMBR really
thermal? And how isotropic was it? It couldn't be perfectly smooth,
perfectly isotropic. By this time, theorists of the expanding universe
knew that there had to be some primordial structure in the early
universe, to act as a seed for large scale structure seen in our
universe of today. Everything from galaxy cluster & superclusters,
down to the galaxies themselves, had to come about as a result of
prior structure, and that prior, primordial structure, should have
left behind a signature in the CMBR. So where was that signature? A
CMBR without any structure in it at all could be a real problem for
BBC, so cosmologists set out to answer the question.

The response to this need was the [33]Cosmic Background Explorer
(COBE) satellite. COBE was launched into orbit on November 18, 1989,
though it had been conceived many years before that. The primary
mission of COBE was to measure the CMBR over the entire sky. All of
the CMBR observations before then, from the ground, combined, had only
observed a small part of the total sky. This alone would be a major
accomplishment. In addition, it would measure the CMBR extended from
the microwave to the far infrared region, where its power should show
a maximum. By measuring the full spectrum, from microwave to far
infrared, COBE could prove by the measured shape of the spectrum that
the CMBR was truly thermal. And, by actually measuring that far
infrared peak, it could pin down the exact temperature.

COBE was a success at both of these tasks. The full spectrum
measurement showed that the CMBR was in fact thermal, its temperature
was determined to be 2.725±0.002 Kelvins (16-19).

COBE also was able to demonstrate the existence of _anisotropy_ in the
distribution of the CMBR around the sky. Although definitely thermal
in every direction, there were subtle differences in temperature when
one part of the sky was compared to the other. The differences were
only on the order of a few microKelvins, but that was enough. These
anisotropies represent the primordial structure that cosmologists were
looking for, the seed that resulted in the structure we see in the
universe today (20).

16. [34]Plot of Thermal Spectrum.
On the plot diagram that is linked here, the solid curve is the
theoretical spectrum for a blackbody at 2.725 Kelvins. The same
curve also represents the spectrum observed by COBE. The
experimental errors on the COBE data are so small that the error
bars are smaller than the thickness of the curve.
17. [35]Measurement of the cosmic microwave background spectrum by the
COBE FIRAS instrument
J.C. Mather _et al._
Astrophysical Journal 420(2) 439-444, Part 1, January 1994
18. [36]Interpretation of the COBE FIRAS CMBR spectrum
E.L. Wright _et al._
Astrophysical Journal 420(2) 450-456, Part 1, January 1994
19. [37]The Cosmic Microwave Background Spectrum from the Full COBE
FIRAS Data Set
D.J. Fixsen _et al._
Astrophysical Journal 473: 576, December, 1996)
20. [38]4-Year COBE DMR Cosmic Microwave Background Observations: Maps
and Basic Results
C.L. Bennett, _et al._
Astrophysical Journal 464: L1-L6, 1996

_Anisotropies in the CMBR_

Prior to COBE it was understood that the CMBR had to have a thermal
spectrum, in all directions, and this fact was soundly confirmed by
the COBE results. It was also understood that the CMBR should be
essentially isotropic, and this too was confirmed by COBE. The value
of the COBE data was that they provided the first true all sky maps of
the CMBR, finally proving that the expectation of theory was matched
with fidelity by observation.

But note, it was understood that the CMBR should be _essentially_
isotropic, but not _exactly_ isotropic. This raises the obvious
question of how anisotropic one might expect the CMBR to be? This is
somewhat model dependent, so it really requires an observation of the
anisotropies to pin down the free parameters in the models. COBE
provided the first cut at that exercise, and its results were
invaluable. COBE demonstrated that there were anisotropies, although
perhaps smaller in temperature amplitude than had been expected. Also,
the large beams of the COBE DMR made it impossible to see any but the
largest angular scale anisotropies. It quickly became evident that
much smaller angular scales were required, if one was to pin down the
details of Big Bang cosmology via the anisotropies in the CMBR.

The cosmological value of the anisotropies in the CMBR is not it how
large they are in temperature units, but how large they are (or how
small they are) in angular size on the sky, and how anisotropies of
one angular size correlate statistically with anisotropies of other
angular sizes. That correlation, which we call the _angular power
spectrum_, can be related directly to key parameters of basic Big Bang
cosmology, such as the curvature of space time, the age of the
universe, the rate of expansion of the universe, the matter density of
the universe, and more. The angular size to which COBE was sensitive
was too large to carry out this exercise of fitting the theory to the
observsations.

So, the success of COBE sparked a flurry of activity in the following
decade, to measure the anisotropies in the CMBR at ever smaller
angular scales. [39]BOOMERanG, [40]MAXIMA, [41]DASI, [42]VSA, and
[43]CBI are the better known experiments, all of which have published
significant results that are referenced on their webpages. In addition
to these, the [44]Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP) has been gathering
data since April 2001. It has already produced one full sky map, and
its first data will probably be published before 2002 is gone. MAP
will do essentially the same thing COBE did, but with much higher
angular resolution. Meanwhile, the [45]European Space Agency is
plotting to launch their own MAP-like mission in 2007, [46]Planck.
Similar to MAP, Planck will have the added ability to measure the
polarization of the CMBR. That could lead to the detection of
signatures left behind by gravitational waves roaming the universe, in
the era when the CMBR was born.

COBE set the stage by showing that anisotropies did exist in the CMBR.
But the angular resolution of COBE was not enough to establish even
the first peak in the anisotropy power spectrum. Since that feature
would be revealing of the "flatness" of he universe, the post-COBE
world of precision cosmology was hot on its trail. Data from BOOMERanG
and MAXIMA, amonst others, established that first peak unambiguously.
Along with DASI they went on to detect 2nd & 3rd peaks, though perhaps
only marginally. But the results from VSA & CBI, announced in spring
2002, established the unambiguous nature of the higher order peaks in
the CMB angular power spectrum. We now know that there are are
anisotropies in the CMB on size scales down to the upper limit of the
size

_CMBR and Alternative Cosmologies_

There is no doubt that Big bang Cosmology is by far the most widely
accepted amongst scientists, especially those who specialize in
studying astronomy, asrtophysics, and cosmology. This is not just
because of some strange commitment to the status quo, or some
requirement to be scientifically politically correct. It is because,
if you stack the scientific evidence, the observed facts, up against
the theoretical explanations offered, then Big Bang cosmology is the
one that quite simply works bets, overall. And part of that evidence
is the CMBR.

This does not mean that there are no cosmologists who disagree with
Big Bang cosmology, there certainly are. Jayant Narlikar, former
student of Sir Fred Hoyle, continues the make a case (21) for the
Quasi Steady State Cosmology (QSSC) long championed by Hoyle, and his
students Narlikar & Wickramasinghe (22,23). Aside from QSSC, there is
also the argument of Halton Arp, that redshifts are the result of some
unexplained intrinsic process, and that they do not represent a
cosmological expansion (24-26). And Australian astronomer David
Crawford holds to a form of "tired light" cosmology, where the
redshift comes from an intrinsic energy loss mechanism, and not
universal expanasion (27).

Those are the alternatives that still seem to have enough content to
remain in the regular scientific publications. There are yet others,
rarely seen now, such as the esoteric idea of Plasma Cosmology first
put forth by Nobel prizewinner Hannes Alfven (28,29), ideas now known
to be of such low merit that they are simply ignored.

All of these alternative have to somehow deal with the CMBR, and our
increasingly detailed knowledge of it. And they are increasingly
unable to do so. The CMBR is one of the major factors that
discriminate between Big Bang cosmology, which explicitly requires a
CMBR, and alternatives, which allow it, but don't need it. It was
after all, Big Bang cosmology which first predicted the existence of a
CMBR. And the detailed consistency between the CMBR and Big Bang
models of the universe continues to push the Big Bang forward in the
field of cosmology, as its rivals slowly fall back.

21. _Standard Cosmology and Alternatives: A Critical Appraisal_
Jayant V. Narlikar & T. Padmanabhan
Annual review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 39: 211-248 (2001)
22. [47]A quasi-steady state cosmological model with creation of
matter
F. Hoyle, G. Burbidge, G. & J.V. Narlikar
Astrophysical Journal, Part 1, 410(2): 437-457, June 1993
23. [48]The quasi-steady state cosmology: analytical solutions of
field equations and their relationship to observations
R. Sachs, J.V. Narlikar & F. Hoyle
Astronomy and Astrophysics 313: 703-712, September 1996
24. [49]Companion galaxies: A test of the assumption that velocities
can be inferred from redshifts
Halton Arp
Astrophysical Journal, Part 1, 430(1): 74-82, July 1994
25. [50]Seeing red : redshifts, cosmology and academic science
Halton Arp
Apeiron, 1998
26. [51]X-Ray-emitting QSOS Ejected from Arp 220
H.C. Arp _et al._
Astrophysical Journal 553(1): L11-L13, May 2001.
27. [52]A static stable universe
David F. Crawford
Astrophysical Journal, Part 1, 410(2): 488-492, June 1993
28. [53]Cosmology in the plasma universe - an introductory exposition
Hannes Alfven
IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 18: 5-10, February 1990
29. [54]The big bang never happened
Eric J. Lerner
Random House, 1991

_Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe_

Formerly known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP), this COBE
follow on mission was renamed the [55]Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe (WMAP), in honor of [56]David Wilkinson, cosmologist & MAP team
member, who died in September 2002. Launched June 30, 2001, the
spacecraft reached its destination (the L2 Lagrange point) on October
1, 2002, and finished its first all sky map in April, 2002. I said
earlier that the results would probably be published before 2002 was
out, and that was almost correct. First results were announced on
February 11, 2003, and published in preprint form on February 12, 2003
(30-42).

The significant difference between COBE and WMAP is resolution. The
COBE DMR maps has a resolution on the sky of about 7°, but WMAP has a
resolution that is about 1° down to ¼°. Following 10 years after COBE,
WMAP is the only post-COBE experiment to date, which has mapped the
whole sky.

Unlike COBE, which was relatively insensitive to anisotropies in the
CMBR, the WMAP observatory is designed to measure those anisotropies.
That makes WMAP the first all-sky anisotropy mapper. The anisotropies
are used to derive several cosmological parameters. It is possible to
build a physical model of the universe, by a detailed analysis of
anisotropies in the CMBR. So the significant result from WMAP is that,
unlike COBE, it can contribute to the developments of such parameters
as the Hubble constant, the age of the universe, the presence of dark
matter, and the presence of a cosmological constant.

The result that seems to have gotten the most press is a derived age
for the universe of 13.7±0.2 billion years. Other results support
inflationary cosmology, the presence of non-baryonic dark matter, and
a non-zero cosmological constant. I'll discuss these, and other
results, in the next section as well.

30. _[57]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results_
C.L. Bennett, _et al._
31. _[58]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Angular Power Spectrum_
G. Hinshaw, _et al._
32. _[59]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters_
D.N. Spergel, _et al._
33. _[60]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Parameter Estimation Methodology_
L. Verde, _et al._
34. _[61]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Implications for Inflation_
H.V. Peiris, >i>et al.
35. _[62]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Foreground Emission_
C.L. Bennett, _et al._
36. _[63]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: On-Orbit Radiometer Characterization_
N. Jarosik, _et al._
37. _[64]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Tests of Gaussianity_
E. Komatsu, _et al._
38. _[65]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Data Processing Methods and Systematic Errors Limits_
G. Hinshaw, et al.
39. _[66]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Interpretation of the TT and TE Angular Power
Spectrum Peaks_
L. Page, _et al._
40. _[67]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Galactic Signal Contamination from Sidelobe Pickup_
C. Barnes, _et al._
41. _[68]First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Observations: Beam Profiles and Window Functions_
L. Page, _et al._
42. _[69]Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) First Year
Observations: TE Polarization_
A. Kogut, _et al._

_Concordance Cosmology_

This section is a short note on what has come to be known as the
_[70]concordance cosmology_. The esoteric worls of CMBR cosmology
meets the more well known areas of cosmology, like the HST Key
Project, in the ability to derive cosmological parameters from the
angular power spectrum of the CMBR. What is remarkable is that these
very different approaches to cosmology are yielding essentially the
same results. It really amounts to a new era in cosmology; instead of
various methods & observations pointing off in different directions,
now all of the methods and observations point towards the same basic
model of the universe. This creates a strong confidence in the reality
of Big Bang cosmology in general, and the specific details of a
workable Big Bang model of the universe. The CMBR angular power
spectrum, measurements of the Hubble constant via the extragalactic
distance scale using cepheid variable stars, and more recent
implications of high redshift type Ia supernovae, all lead to the same
small set of conclusions.

* The age of the universe is about 14 billion years.
* There is a non zero cosmological constant.
* The expansion of the universe is accelerating.
* There was an inflationary epoch after the Big Bang.
* The matter density of the universe is dominated by non-baryonic
dark matter.

It certainly appears that we are zeroing in on a real cosmology, and
this may be one of the key scientific features of the beggining of the
21st century. After decades of confusion, cosmology is settling in as
an exact science. Our ability to make precise measurements of the CMBR
is a major feature of that new scientific environment.

_Webpages_

Places to go on the web, where you can deal with the CMBR and Big Bang
cosmology in far more detail than I can handdle here on my one small
webpage.

* [71]Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial (UCLA)
+ [72]Cosmolgical Fads and Fallacies (A list of the failures of
alternative cosmologies)
+ [73]ABC's of Distance (How cosmological distances are
determined)
+ [74]Cosmic Microwave Background Anisotropy (A quick look at
the anisotropes)
* [75]Wayne Hu (University of Chicago)
+ [76]Introduction to the Cosmic Microwave background (A longer
intro than mine, what the CMB is)
+ [77]Anisotropies in the CMB (A long tutorial on what
anisotropies in CMB mean)
+ [78]A Tour of CMB Physics (A tutorial on the basic physics
that creates the CMB)
* [79]Max Tegmark (University of Pennsylvania)
+ [80]CMB Movies (Movies show how CMB anisotropies change with
theory parameters)
+ [81]CMB Data Analysis (How the CMB is analyzed)
+ [82]CMB Experiments (A list of missions & experiments with
webpages)
* [83]Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
+ [84]New Results (February 2003)
+ [85]Big Bang Cosmology
+ [86]Tests of Big Bang Cosmology
+ [87]Beyond Big Bang Cosmology

[88]Tim Thompson July 2002, updated February 2003

setstats 1

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