http://SaturnianCosmology.Org/ mirrored file For complete access to all the files of this collection see http://SaturnianCosmology.org/search.php ========================================================== IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE 1 Real Properties of Electromagnetic Fields and Plasma in the Cosmos Donald E. Scott Abstract--A majority of baryons in the cosmos are in the plasma state. However, fundamental disagreements about the properties and behavior of electromagnetic fields in these plasmas exist between the science of modern astronomy/astrophysics and the experimentally verified laws of electrical engineering and plasma physics. Many helioastronomers claim that magnetic fields can be open ended. Astrophysicists have claimed that galactic mag netic fields begin and end on molecular clouds. Most electrical engineers, physicists, and pioneers in the electromagnetic field theory disagree, i.e., magnetic fields have no beginning or end. Many astrophysicists still claim that magnetic fields are "frozen into" electric plasma. The "magnetic merging" (reconnection) mechanism is also falsified by both theoretical and experimental investigations. Index Terms--Magnetic fields, Maxwell equations, merging, plasmas. I. INTRODUCTION PLASMA cosmology was formally introduced more than 25 years ago by Alfvén [1]­[3]. This paper was based on his earlier experimental investigations and those of Birkeland and Langmuir. They, in turn, had been motivated by the con cepts embodied in Maxwell's equations. This compact set of relations codifies the results of a long series of experiments that were performed by the founders of electrical science. Thus, plasma cosmology is not based simply on deductive reasoning and mathematical formalisms, but rather on verified laboratory evidence. For example, an indication of the dominance of the magnetic force is demonstrated by a ball bearing on a table. All of Earth's baryonic mass exerts a gravitational pull on the bearing, pre venting it from lifting off the table. Yet, the smallest horseshoe magnet easily snatches it away. On a cosmic scale, magnetic energy density can also exceed gravitational energy density. For example, in the local supercluster, the magnetic field energy density exceeds the gravitational energy density by at least an order of magnitude [4]. The local interstellar medium has an estimated ion­electron pair concentration in the range of 0.01­1/cm3. Thus, the vol ume between the Sun and its nearest neighbor contains some 6 × 1054 ion­electron pairs. However, quantitative calculations based on simple electrostatic forces between such particles lead to erroneous conclusions. This is because double layers (DLs) separate cells of plasma in space (e.g., heliospheres) such that electrostatic forces between bodies that are each surrounded by such DL-bounded plasma cells are negligibly weak. Homogeneous models often are found to be misleading and should be replaced by inhomogeneous models, with the inhomogeneities being produced by filamentary currents and DLs that divide space into cells [5]. Space in general has a cellular structure. Theoretical analyses based on the classical plasma theory 54 often fail to correspond to real results that are obtained via 55 direct observation. On the other hand, simulations on super- 56 computers and actual laboratory experiments provide accurate 57 descriptions of the behavior of such cosmic plasmas. Rotation 58 is an inherent result of interacting electric currents in plasma. 59 Computer models of two current filaments interacting in a 60 plasma have accurately reproduced details of spiral galaxy 61 rotation profiles [6]. Plasma cosmology also offers [1] a model 62 that predicted the existence of galactic jets and the behavior of 63 double-radio-source galaxies prior to their observation. 64 It is clear that a rigorous understanding of the real physical 65 properties of magnetic fields in plasmas is crucial for astro- 66 physicists and cosmologists. Incorrect pronouncements about 67 the properties of magnetic fields and currents in plasma will be 68 counterproductive if these conceptual errors are propagated into 69 publications and then used as the basis of new investigations. 70 There are some popular misconceptions. 71 1) Magnetic "lines of force" really exist as extant entities in 72 3-D space and are involved in cosmic mechanisms when 73 they move. 74 2) Magnetic fields can be open ended and can release energy 75 by "merging" or "reconnecting." 76 3) Behavior of magnetic fields can be explained without any 77 reference to the currents that produce them. 78 4) Cosmic plasma is infinitely conductive, so magnetic fields 79 are "frozen into" it. 80 II. MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE 81 Since the 1950s, some solar astrophysicists have asserted that 82 the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) is really open ended [7], 83 with one end "anchored" to the Sun and the other waving in the 84 solar wind. Open field lines supposedly connect to the polar 85 regions of the Sun and define the polar coronal holes that are 86 prevalent at solar minima [8]. 87 "The IMF originates in regions on the Sun where the mag- 88 netic field is `open'--that is, where field lines emerging from 89 one region do not return to a conjugate region but extend 90 virtually indefinitely into space [9]." 91 Although it is well understood among the space physics 92 community that the divergence of magnetic fields in space is 93 zero valued (B is "solenoidal"), some recent statements are 94 equivocal on this point. 95 "Magnetic field lines can exist in two types: closed and open. 96 A closed magnetic field line is anchored at two points in the 97 photosphere and extends into the corona as a loop or arch. This 98 explains the shape of solar prominences. Open field lines are 99 only anchored at one point in the photosphere, and they extend 100 out into interplanetary space; it is in these open field lines 101 that the corona can expand outward in the form of the solar 102 wind [10]." 103 "An `open' field line is defined as being one upon which 104 the solar wind flows. As Parker predicted, the solar wind flows 105 faster than the critical speed, and hence the field line does not 106 return to the Sun locally [11]." 107 If it is well understood that the "open" field lines are actually 108 closed loops and eventually return to the Sun, how and at 109 what location does the matter in the solar wind get off the 110 closed path? 111 "Field lines intersecting the photospheric boundary are said 112 to be anchored and the point of intersection is termed a foot 113 point. Field lines anchored at both ends to the photospheric 114 boundary are said to be closed. Closed field lines appear to 115 account for the majority of an active region's corona. Open field 116 lines, such as in coronal holes, are those with one footpoint 117 in the photosphere and the other end in the source surface or 118 extending to infinity [12]." 119 Regarding the end that is supposedly anchored in the Sun, to 120 what kind of entity does the magnetic field line attach itself? 121 These questions are important in cosmology because the Sun 122 is a typical star, and all stars in the cosmos must have at least 123 somewhat analogous characteristics. 124 The notion that magnetic field lines can be open ended is 125 impossible to reconcile with Maxwell's simple and universal 126 equation, i.e., 127 · B = 0 (1) or in integral form (Gauss' law for magnetism) given by 128 A B · dA = 0 (2) and the vast body of experiments that led to it. At any instant of 129 time, the net sum of all magnetic flux entering any closed sur 130 face A is zero. The closed surface can be of any size or shape. 131 Therefore, there can be no beginning or end to a magnetic field 132 anywhere. Whatever magnetic flux enters the closed surface 133 also leaves it. There is no way to store magnetic flux inside the 134 volume that is defined by the closed surface. Every magnetic 135 field is a continuum, i.e., a vector field. Each of the infinite 136 and uncountable points in this continuum has a magnitude and 137 a direction that is associated with it. This continuum is not 138 composed of (does not contain) a set of discrete lines. Lines 139 are sometimes drawn on paper to describe the magnetic field 140 (its direction and magnitude). Where the field is strong, such as 141 at the poles of an electromagnet, the lines come close together. 142 However, the lines themselves do not actually exist in reality. 143 They are simply a visualization device, i.e., a useful way to 144 understand the properties of a vector field. The loci are always 145 endless (closed) loops. There is only one "type of magnetic field 146 line." They are useful abstractions and nothing more. 147 III. DOUBLE HELIX NEBULA 148 Another misleading statement surfaced regarding the prop- 149 erties of magnetic fields in the search for an explanation of a 150 double-helix-shaped plasma near the center of the Milky Way 151 galaxy [13]. Investigators have attempted to describe this object 152 in terms of twisted magnetic flux tubes and Alfvénic magnetic 153 waves. Yet, it is obviously a galactic Birkeland current. It can 154 clearly be seen as a pair of helical current filaments in a plasma. 155 One attempt with which the author is familiar is being made to 156 model its twisted shape as being caused by the rigid connections 157 of a magnetic field to a pair of counterrotating molecular 158 clouds, with one at each of its "ends." A supercomputer study is 159 being conducted using a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) model 160 to explain the "kinks" (plasma instabilities) in the object. This 161 MHD model is based on a nonresistive plasma, which is a 162 notion that Alfvén showed decades ago that is is a purely 163 mythical concept. 164 The point is that nothing can be explained by assuming that 165 an open-ended magnetic field has rigid connections either to the 166 Sun, which is a star, or a rotating molecular cloud at one or both 167 of its ends. Magnetic fields do not have ends. 168 The phrase "magnetic lines of force," as coined by Faraday, 169 is misleading. The only force that is uniquely associated with a 170 magnetic field is the one that is applied to a compass needle to 171 force it to align with the field's direction. If and when electrical 172 charges pass through a magnetic field, other types of forces 173 result, but these are due to the interaction between these moving 174 charges and the field, as described by the equation of motion of 175 Lorentz, i.e., 176 d dt (mv) = q(E + v × B). (3) This relationship accurately describes the cause of synchrotron 177 radiation and the spiral paths that are taken by currents in 178 magnetized plasma. 179 Many astrophysicists, when presented with these ideas, will 180 acknowledge that magnetic lines of force are only abstrac- 181 tions and not real-world extant objects. However, there is no 182 justification for statements such as "For many years [these 183 lines] were viewed as merely a way to visualize magnetic 184 fields, and electrical engineers usually preferred other ways, 185 mathematically more convenient. Not so in space, however, 186 where magnetic field lines are fundamental to the way free 187 electrons and ions move. These electrically charged particles 188 tend to become attached to the field lines on which they reside, 189 spiralling [sic] around them while sliding along them, like 190 beads on a wire [14]." This erroneous concept becomes doubly 191 dangerous when the magnetic field lines themselves are also 192 thought to be able to move, as in magnetic reconnection. 193 SCOTT: REAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PLASMA IN THE COSMOS 3 Fig. 1. Concept of magnetic reconnection: magnetic merging at an X-type neutral line. The solid lines are the magnetic field lines, whereas the dashed lines are the plasma flow lines. IV. MAGNETIC RECONNECTION 194 In 1961, Dungey proposed magnetic reconnection, an idea 195 that Giovanelli conceived in 1946 to explain solar flaring. It has 196 become widely accepted among astronomers that when more 197 or less oppositely pointing field lines approach each other, they 198 can abruptly "short circuit," "merge," or "reconnect." In this 199 reconnected configuration, the field lines are bent tightly like 200 the elastic strings of a catapult. When the field lines suddenly 201 straighten, they supposedly fling out plasma in opposite direc 202 tions. The reason that they suddenly straighten is assumed to be 203 the second term in the MHD pressure equation, i.e., 204 (p + B2/2µo) - (B)B/µ0 = 0. (4) Alfvén addressed this point [5] by noting that the second term 205 in (4) is equivalent to the pinch effect that is caused by electric 206 currents. 207 The standard explanation of reconnection (Fig. 1) is that 208 magnetic field lines 1 and 2 move in from the left and from the 209 right, and eventually come together (short circuit) at the central 210 point. There they change their structure: The two top halves 211 join (reconnect) and move up, ultimately reaching the position 212 of line 3, while the two bottom halves join and form the line 213 that later moves to position 4. 214 However, lines 1, 2, 3, and 4 are magnetic field lines and, 215 as such, cannot move or "reach the neutral line." In addition, 216 there must be currents or current sheets that are not shown in 217 Fig. 1 since curved magnetic fields cannot exist without them 218 (see Section V). An additional error is made in assuming that 219 plasma is "attached" to those lines and will be bulk transported, 220 as shown by the dashed paths in Fig. 1, by this movement of the 221 magnetic lines. 222 Although the proposed reconnection mechanism changes the 223 topology of the magnetic field, it does not explicitly reduce 224 the strength of any part of the magnetic field. Thus, it cannot 225 liberate magnetic energy that is stored in that field. 226 One source explains reconnection as being caused by the 227 breaking of magnetic field lines. "Magnetic reconnection is 228 a fundamental physical process occurring in a magnetized 229 plasma, whereby magnetic field lines are effectively broken 230 Fig. 2. Two parallel electric currents that are directed away from the viewer showing the resulting magnetic field. The central box in this figure is shown in Fig. 1. The dashed lines are "separatrix loci" that come into contact along a line central to and parallel with the currents. and reconnected, resulting in a change of magnetic topology, 231 conversion of magnetic field energy into bulk kinetic energy 232 and particle heating [15]." 233 Proposing that magnetic field lines move around, break, 234 merge, reconnect, or recombine is an error based on the false 235 assumption that the lines are real entities in the first place. 236 This is an example of reifying an abstract theoretical concept. 237 Field lines are not real-world 3-D entities and thus cannot do 238 anything. Like mathematical singularities, field lines are pure 239 abstractions and cannot be reified into being real 3-D material 240 objects. 241 The central point in Fig. 1 from which energy is supposedly 242 released by magnetic reconnection (merging) is a neutral point, 243 one at which the magnetic field strength is zero valued. 244 Fig. 2 provides a simple example that demonstrates how such 245 a neutral point can be created. The field structure that is shown 246 in Fig. 1 lies within the small rectangle at the center of Fig. 2. 247 The two dark circles with central Xs in Fig. 2 represent two 248 straight equal-amplitude electric currents I flowing away from 249 the viewer (into the page). A clockwise-directed magnetic flux 250 will therefore encircle these currents. Each of the dashed lines 251 in this figure is a "separatrix." Inside these dashed lines, the 252 magnetic field links only one current. Outside the separatrix, 253 the magnetic field links both currents. The two separatrix loci 254 intersect at the neutral point, which, in this 3-D case, is actually 255 a neutral line. 256 The magnetic field strength vector at any point in the plane 257 of the figure is the vector sum of all component fields that are 258 produced by all differential current segments in the vicinity. At 259 the neutral point (or line), the current on the right produces a 260 magnetic field strength vector that is vertically upward. Simi- 261 larly, the current on the left produces a magnetic field vector 262 that is vertically downward at that point. Therefore, these two 263 field strength vectors sum to zero at the center of the figure, and 264 the strength of the B field at such a neutral point is identically 265 zero. Additional currents AND/OR current sheets can be added 266 to this diagram. Doing so will alter the topology of the magnetic 267 field, possibly introducing additional neutral points or lines and 268 separatrices. 269 Note that no electric currents exist near or at the neutral point. 270 If they did, the point would no longer be magnetically neutral. 271 4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE The energy that is stored at any point in a magnetic field is 272 proportional to the square of the magnitude of the magnetic flux 273 density at that point, i.e., 274 WB = 1 2µo B2Idv (5) where BI is the magnitude of the magnetic field, and dv is a 275 small volume element. Thus, if BI = 0 at any given point, then 276 the stored energy there would be WB = 0. No energy is stored 277 at a neutral point; this is why it is called a neutral or null point. 278 No energy release can occur from any point at which no 279 energy is stored. 280 However, a large amount of energy can be stored in and 281 released from the surrounding field structure but only if either 282 or both currents I take on lower values. This is easily demon 283 strated in the example in Fig. 2, which is given in the following. 284 The total energy that has been delivered to an electrical 285 element (e.g., a unit length of the conductors that are shown 286 in Fig. 2) by time t0 is given by [16] 287 W (t0) = t0 v(t)i(t)dt. (6) For the case of the flux-linked conductors in the example, 288 i(t) = 2I, and v(t) is the voltage drop across a unit length 289 of the conductor in the direction of i(t). Faraday's law indi 290 cates that 291 v(t) = d(t) dt (7) where is the total magnetic flux that links the conductors. 292 Thus, the energy that is stored in the magnetic field that 293 surrounds the conductors at time t0 is given by 294 W (t0) = t0 d dt i(t)dt = (t0) ( -) id (8) where the total magnetic flux depends on the current's ampli 295 tude, i.e., 296 (t) = Li(t). (9) The constant of proportionality L is called the inductance, 297 which may be a constant or a function of . When a cur 298 rent flows in large regions, this single inductance element L 299 should be replaced by a transmission line, and the situation is 300 then more accurately (but less intuitively) described by partial 301 differential equations [1]. Equations (6)­(9) demonstrate the 302 basic principle that the total energy that is stored magnetically 303 in the infinite volume surrounding the conductors completely 304 depends on the current. That is, using (9), (8) may be written 305 as an integral in terms of only the current. The total energy 306 that will be released from this volume over any time interval is 307 thus clearly a function of the change in current amplitude over 308 that interval. 309 The diagram in Fig. 2 approximates a cross section of a cos- 310 mic Birkeland current pair. If these twin currents are disrupted 311 (e.g., by an exploding DL in their path), the field will quickly 312 collapse and liberate all of the stored magnetic energy that is 313 given by (8). 314 Investigators [15], [17]­[20] who prefer to avoid explicit 315 mention of electric current as a primary cause of cosmic energy 316 releases fall back on magnetic reconnection as an explanation. 317 In certain situations, magnetic reconnection supposedly directly 318 converts magnetic energy into kinetic energy in the form of 319 bidirectional plasma jets. The process is initiated in a narrow 320 source region that is called the "diffusion region." According 321 to the theory, both resistive and collisionless processes can 322 initiate reconnection. One of the key predicted signatures of 323 collisionless reconnection is the separation between ions and 324 electrons (plasma) in the diffusion region. This separation is 325 said to create a quadrupolar system of Hall currents and, 326 thus, an associated set of Hall magnetic fields. Even here 327 however, it is understood that any released energy comes not 328 from neutral points, lines, or surfaces, where no energy is 329 stored, or bulk movement of plasma but from the surrounding 330 magnetic field structure that depends on those Hall currents for 331 its existence. 332 The crucial difference between the two explanations is the 333 question of which quantity (time-varying electric current or 334 moving magnetic "lines") causes energy release from the mag- 335 netized plasma. 336 Alfvén [1] was explicit in his condemnation of the recon- 337 necting concept: "Of course there can be no magnetic merging 338 energy transfer. The most important criticism of the merging 339 mechanism is that by Heikkila [21], who, with increasing 340 strength, has demonstrated that it is wrong. In spite of all 341 this, we have witnessed, at the same time, an enormously 342 voluminous formalism building up based on this obviously 343 erroneous concept. 344 I was naďve enough to believe that [magnetic recombination] 345 would die by itself in the scientific community, and I con- 346 centrated my work on more pleasant problems. To my great 347 surprise the opposite has occurred: `merging' . . . seems to be 348 increasingly powerful. Magnetospheric physics and solar wind 349 physics today are no doubt in a chaotic state, and a major 350 reason for this is that part of the published papers are science 351 and part pseudoscience, perhaps even with a majority in the 352 latter group." 353 V. ROLE OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN THE COSMOS 354 No real magnetic field can exist anywhere without an associ- 355 ated moving charge (electric current). Conversely, any electric 356 current will create a magnetic field. The applicable Maxwell 357 equation describes this inherent interrelationship, i.e., 358 × H = j + dE dt (10) where j is the current density, and the second term on the 359 right is the displacement current, which is often neglected. 360 However, it is sometimes convenient to account for the kinetic 361 SCOTT: REAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PLASMA IN THE COSMOS 5 energy of a magnetized plasma by introducing the effective 362 permittivity, i.e., 363 1 + (c/VMH)2 (11) where c and VMH are the velocities of light and of hydrody 364 namic waves. If this is done, the displacement current can be 365 large [1]. In any event, all terms in the equation are expressed 366 in amperes per square meter. Magnetic flux density B = µH 367 (where µ is the magnetic permeability of the medium). Equa 368 tion (10) defines the inherent coupling of magnetic fields and 369 electric currents. The classroom interpretation of this relation 370 ship is called the "right-hand rule." Point your right thumb in 371 the direction of the current density vector; your fingers show 372 the direction of the magnetic field (and vice versa). Although 373 magnetic fields are often included in astronomical hypotheses, 374 the inherently associated electric currents are rarely mentioned. 375 In addition, as is true in the proposed reconnection mechanism, 376 the behavior of cosmic magnetic fields and the release of energy 377 from those fields can only be understood by referencing the 378 behavior of their causative electric currents. 379 VI. FROZEN-IN MAGNETIC FIELDS 380 Astrophysicists often assume that plasmas are perfect con 381 ductors, and as such, any magnetic field in any plasma must be 382 "frozen" inside it. (This rigid attachment is assumed in the mag 383 netic reconnection mechanism that is discussed in Section IV.) 384 Indeed, it was plasma pioneer Alfvén who first proposed this 385 idea. It was based on the observation that, since plasmas were 386 thought to be perfect conductors, they cannot sustain electric 387 fields. 388 Alfvén's original motivation for proposing "frozen-in" fields 389 stemmed from another one of Maxwell's equations, i.e., 390 × E = -dB dt . (12) This implies that if the electric field in a region of plasma is 391 identically zero valued (as it would have to be if the medium 392 had zero resistance--perfect conductivity), then any magnetic 393 field within that region must be time invariant (must be frozen). 394 Thus, if all plasmas are ideal conductors (and thus cannot 395 support electric fields), then any magnetic fields inside such 396 plasmas must be frozen in, i.e., cannot move or change in any 397 way with time. 398 The electrical conductivity of any material, including plasma, 399 is determined by two main factors, namely: 1) the density of the 400 population of available charge carriers (free ions and electrons) 401 in the medium and 2) the mobility of these carriers. Most, 402 if not all, cosmic plasmas are magnetized (contain large and 403 long internal magnetic fields). In any such plasma, the trans 404 verse (perpendicular to this field) mobility of charge carriers 405 is severely restricted because of the spinning motion that is 406 imposed on their momentum by Lorentz force (3). Mobility 407 in the parallel (and antiparallel) direction, being unaffected by 408 this transverse force, is extremely high because electrons and 409 ions have long mean-free paths in such plasmas. However, the 410 density (the number per unit volume) of these charge carriers 411 may not be at all high, particularly, if the plasma is a very 412 low pressure (diffused) one. Therefore, conductivity is less than 413 ideal, even in the longitudinal direction, in cosmic plasma. 414 Laboratory measurements demonstrate that a nonzero-valued 415 electric field in the direction of the current (Eparallel > 0) 416 is required to produce a nonzero current density within any 417 plasma no matter what mode of operation the plasma is in. 418 Negative-slope regions of the volt-ampere characteristic (neg- 419 ative dynamic resistance) of a plasma column reveal the cause 420 of the filamentary properties of plasma, but all static resistance 421 values are measured to be > 0. 422 Thus, although plasmas are excellent conductors, they are not 423 perfect conductors. Weak longitudinal electric fields can and do 424 exist inside plasmas. Therefore, magnetic fields are not frozen 425 inside them. 426 When, in his acceptance speech of the 1970 Nobel Prize in 427 physics, Alfvén pointed out that this frozen-in idea, which he 428 had earlier endorsed, was false, many astrophysicists chose not 429 to listen. In reality, magnetic fields do move with respect to 430 cosmic plasma cells and, in doing so, induce electric currents. 431 This mechanism (which generates electric current) is one cause 432 of the phenomena that is described by what is now called 433 plasma cosmology. 434 Alfvén said, "I thought that the frozen-in concept was very 435 good from a pedagogical point of view, and indeed it became 436 very popular. In reality, however, it was not a good pedagog- 437 ical concept but a dangerous `pseudo pedagogical concept.' 438 By `pseudo pedagogical' I mean a concept which makes you 439 believe that you understand a phenomenon whereas in reality 440 you have drastically misunderstood it." 441 Now, we know that there are slight voltage differences be- 442 tween different points in plasmas. Many astrophysicists are still 443 unaware of this property of plasmas, and so, we often still 444 read unqualified assertions such as "Once a plasma contains 445 magnetic fields, they move with the plasma as if the magnetic 446 field lines were frozen in [18]." 447 In addition, ". . . plasmas and magnetic fields interact; they 448 behave, approximately, as if they are `frozen' together [19]." 449 ". . . fields that are `stuck' inside conductors take a long time 450 to diffuse out (i.e., the magnetic flux is frozen into the moving 451 plasma) [20]." 452 VII. CONCLUSION 453 Maxwell showed that magnetic fields are the inseparable 454 handmaidens of electric currents and vice versa. This is as 455 true in the cosmos as it is here on Earth. Those investigators 456 who, for whatever reason, have not been exposed to the now 457 well-known properties of real plasmas and electromagnetic 458 field theory must refrain from inventing "new" mechanisms in 459 efforts to support current-free cosmic models. "New science" 460 should not be invoked until all of what is now known about 461 electromagnetic fields and electric currents in space plasma 462 has been considered. Pronouncements that are in contradiction 463 to Maxwell's equations ought to be openly challenged by 464 responsible scientists and engineers. 465 6 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE REFERENCES 466 [1] H. Alfvén, "Double layers and circuits in astrophysics," IEEE Trans. 467 Plasma Sci., vol. PS-14, no. 6, p. 788, Dec. 1986. 468 [2] H. Alfvén, Cosmic Plasma. New York: Reidel, 1981. 469 [3] H. Alfvén and C. G. Falthämmer, Cosmical Electrodynamics. London, 470 U.K.: Oxford Univ. Press, 1963. 471 [4] E. J. Lerner, Lawrenceville Plasma Physics, West Orange, NJ. private 472 communication, Jun. 2005. 473 [5] H. Alfvén, "Model of the plasma universe," IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 474 vol. PS-14, no. 6, pp. 631­632, Dec. 1986. 475 [6] A. L. Peratt, Physics of the Plasma Universe. New York: Springer 476 Verlag, 1992, pp. 120­122. 285-303. 477 [7] D. P. Stern and M. Peredo, The Magnetopause. Washington, DC: 478 NASA. [Online]. Available: http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/ 479 wmpause.html 480 [8] M. Banaszkiewicz, W. I. Axford, and J. F. McKenzie, "An analytic solar 481 magnetic field model," Astron. Astrophys., vol. 337, no. 3, pp. 940­944, 482 1998. 483 [9] Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF), San Antonio, TX: Southwest Res. 484 Inst. [Online]. Available: http://pluto.space.swri.edu/image/glossary/ 485 IMF.html 486 [10] L. Anderson and S. Young, Effects of Solar Wind on the Near-Earth 487 Geospace and Magnetosphere, Montana State Univ. [Online]. Available: 488 http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181h/projects/97/solar/index.htm 489 [11] H. Hudson and A. Takeda. (2001, Nov. 16). "A skinny but robust coronal 490 hole," Science Nugget. [Online]. Available: http://solar.physics.montana. 491 edu/nuggets/2001/011116/011116.html 492 [12] D. W. Longcope, Topological Methods for the Analysis of Solar Magnetic 493 Fields , Dept. Phys., Montana State Univ. [Online]. Available: http:// 494 solarphysics.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrsp-2005-7/ 495 [13] M. Morris, Astronomers Report Unprecedented Double Helix Nebula 496 Near Center of the Milky Way, Los Angeles, CA: Dept. Phys. and 497 Astronomy, UCLA. [Online]. Available: http://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/ 498 page.asp?RelNum=6903 499 [14] Magnetic Field Lines. Washington, DC: NASA. [Online]. Available: 500 http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wfldline.html 501 [15] P. Sullivan, Magnetic Reconnection. Hanover, NH: Dept. Phys. and 502 Astronomy, Dartmouth Univ. [Online]. Available: http://www.dartmouth. 503 edu/~bpsullivan/recon.html 504 [16] D. E. Scott, An Introduction to Circuit Analysis. New York: McGraw- 505 Hill, 1987, pp. 127­130. 506 [17] M. Řieroset et al., "Wind's encounter with the collisionless magnetic 507 reconnection diffusion region in the Earth's magnetic tail," in Proc. Amer. 508 Geophys. Union Fall Meeting, 2001, abstract #SM42C-01. 509 [18] K. Dolag, M. Bartelmann, and H. Lesch, Magnetic Fields in Galaxy 510 Clusters, Garching, Germany: Max Planck Inst. for Astrophysics. 511 [Online]. Available: http://www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/HIGHLIGHT/ 512 1999/highlight9909_e.html 513 [19] S. Cowley, "A beginner's guide to the Earth's magnetosphere," Earth 514 Space, vol. 8, no. 7, p. 9, Mar. 1996. 515 [20] I. G. Furno et al., Research Highlights "Magnetic Reconnection" Studies 516 Conducted at Los Alamos National Laboratory. [Online]. Available: 517 http://www.lanl.gov/p/rh03_intrator.shtml 518 [21] W. J. Heikkila, "Astrophys," Space Sci., vol. 23, p. 261, 1973. 519 Donald E. Scott received the Bachelor's and Master's degrees from the Univer- 520 sity of Connecticut, Storrs, and the Ph.D. degree from Worcester Polytechnic 521 Institute, Worcester, MA, all in electrical engineering. 522 He was with General Electric (LSTG) in Schenectady, NY, and Pittsfield, 523 MA (Lightning Arrester Division). From 1959 to 1998, he was a member 524 of the faculty of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 525 University of Massachusetts, Amherst. He was, at various times, an Assistant 526 Department Head, the Director of the undergraduate program, the Graduate 527 Admissions Coordinator, and the Director of the College of Engineering's 528 Video Instructional Program. In 1984, he was a Guest Lecturer in the School 529 of Engineering, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez. He is the author of An 530 Introduction To Circuit Analysis--A Systems Approach (McGraw-Hill Book 531 Company, 1987) and The Electric Sky--A Challenge to the Myths of Modern 532 Astronomy (Mikamar Publishing, 2006). This latest work details and expands 533 on the theme of this paper, and addresses the legitimacy of many of the 534 assumptions, hypothetical entities, and forces that are required by presently 535 accepted nonelectrical gravity-only-based theories of astrophysics. 536 Dr. Scott was the recipient of several good-teaching awards. 537