mirrored file at http://SaturnianCosmology.Org/ For complete access to all the files of this collection see http://SaturnianCosmology.org/search.php ========================================================== <#> Mithraism [Categories: Paganism, Ancient Rome] *Mithraism* was an ancient Hellenistic Quick Facts about: *religion* A strong belief in a supernatural power or powers that control human destinyreligion , based on worship of a god called Quick Facts about: *Mithras* Ancient Persian god of light and truth; sun godMithras who apparently derives from the Quick Facts about: *Persia* An empire in southern Asia created by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC and destroyed by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCPersia n god Mithra and other Quick Facts about: *Zoroasterian* Quick Summary not found for this subjectZoroasterian deities. Mithraism apparently originated in the Eastern Mediterranean around the Quick Facts about: *first* An honours degree of the highest classfirst or Quick Facts about: *second* 1/60 of a minute; the basic unit of time adopted under the Systeme International d'Unitessecond centuries BC. It was practiced in the Quick Facts about: *Roman Empire* An empire established by Augustus in 27 BC and divided in AD 395 into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern or Byzantine Empire; at its peak lands in Europe and Africa and Asia were ruled by ancient RomeRoman Empire since the first century BC, and reached its apogee around the Quick Facts about: *third* The musical interval between one note and another three notes away from itthird through Quick Facts about: *fourth* The musical interval between one note and another four notes away from itfourth centuries AD, when it was very popular among the Roman soldiers. Mithraism disappeared from overt practice after the Theodosian decree of Quick Facts about: *391* Quick Summary not found for this subject391 AD banned all pagan rites, and apparently became extinct shortly thereafter. Principles of Mithraism Mithraism is best documented in the form it had acquired in the later Quick Facts about: *Roman Empire* An empire established by Augustus in 27 BC and divided in AD 395 into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern or Byzantine Empire; at its peak lands in Europe and Africa and Asia were ruled by ancient RomeRoman Empire . It was an initiatory 'Quick Facts about: *mystery religion* Quick Summary not found for this subjectmystery religion ,' passed from initiate to initiate, like the Quick Facts about: *Eleusinian Mysteries* Quick Summary not found for this subjectEleusinian Mysteries . It was not based on a supernaturally revealed body of scripture, and hence very little written documentatory evidence survives. Soldiers appeared to be the most plentiful followers of Mithraism, and women were apparently not allowed to join. The mithraeum The center of the cult was the *mithraeum*, either an adapted natural cave or cavern, preferably sanctified by previous local religious usage, or an artificial building imitating a cavern. Mithraea were dark and windowless, even if they were not actually in a subterranean space or in a natural cave. When possible, the mithreum was constructed within or below an existing building. The site of a mithraeum may also be identified by its separate entrance or vestibule, its "cave", called the /spelaeum/ or /spelunca,/ with raised benches along the side walls for the ritual meal, and its sanctuary at the far end, often in a recess, before which the pedestal-like altar stood. Many mithraea that follow this basic plan are scattered over much of the Empire's former area, particularly where the legions were stationed along the frontiers. The most important Quick Facts about: *icon* (computer science) a graphic symbol (usually a simple picture) that denotes a program or a command or a data file or a concept in a graphical user interfaceicon in the mithraeum was the /tauroctony/, a depiction of Mithras in the act of killing a bull. The tauroctony was either painted or depicted in a sculptural relief, sometimes on the altar. A Quick Facts about: *serpent* An obsolete bass cornet; resembles a snakeserpent , a scorpion, a dog, and a raven are present. This killing is shown as occurring inside a cave, much like the mithraeum, where it is the central decoration. The god Mithras In the absence of any Mithraist scripture, all we know about Quick Facts about: *Mithras* Ancient Persian god of light and truth; sun godMithras is what can be deduced from his images in the mithraea that have survived. He is depicted as a man, sometimes in the act of killing the Bull, sometimes being born or reborn from a rock (typically with a snake wrapped around it). One interpretation sees this imagery as a creation myth, depicting the slaying of Sacred Bull, from whose blood all living things will spring. It is commonly believed that the cave in Mithraism imagery represents the cosmos, and the rock is the cosmos seen from the outside; hence the description of this god as 'rising from the dead'. According to some accounts, Mithras died, was buried in a cavernous rock tomb, and was resurrected. Some commentators, inspired by Quick Facts about: *James Frazer* Quick Summary not found for this subjectJames Frazer 's theories, have labeled Mithras a Quick Facts about: *life-death-rebirth deity* Quick Summary not found for this subjectlife-death-rebirth deity , comparable to Quick Facts about: *Isis* Egyptian goddess of fertility; daughter of Geb; sister and wife of OsirisIsis , the resurrected Jesus Christ or the Quick Facts about: *Persephone* (Greek mythology) daughter of Zeus and Demeter; made queen of the underworld by Pluto in ancient mythology; identified with Roman ProserpinaPersephone /Quick Facts about: *Demeter* (Greek mythology) goddess of fertility and protector of marriage in ancient mythology; counterpart of Roman CeresDemeter cult of the Quick Facts about: *Eleusinian Mysteries* Quick Summary not found for this subjectEleusinian Mysteries . Other depictions show Mithras carrying a rock on his back, much as Quick Facts about: *Atlas* A collection of maps in book formAtlas did, and/or wearing a cape that had the starry sky as its inside lining. A bronze image of Mithras, emerging from an egg-shaped zodiac ring, found associated with a mithraeum along Quick Facts about: *Hadrians Wall* Quick Summary not found for this subjectHadrian's Wall (now at the Quick Facts about: *University of Newcastle* Quick Summary not found for this subjectUniversity of Newcastle ), and an inscription from the city of Rome suggest that Mithras may have been seen as the Quick Facts about: *Orphic* Quick Summary not found for this subjectOrphic creator-god Quick Facts about: *Phanes* Quick Summary not found for this subjectPhanes who emerged from the cosmic egg at the beginning of time, bringing the universe into existence. This view is reinforced by a bas-relief at the /Estense Museum/ in Quick Facts about: *Modena* Quick Summary not found for this subjectModena , Quick Facts about: *Italy* A republic in southern Europe on the Italian Peninsula; was the core of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire between the 4th century BC and the 5th century ADItaly , which shows Phanes coming from an egg, surrounded by the twelve signs of the zodiac, in an image very similar to that at Newcastle. Phanes in Greek means 'manifestor', or 'revealer.' (In the Orphic tradition he is also called Love (/Quick Facts about: *Eros* (Greek mythology) god of love; son of Aphrodite; identified with Roman CupidEros /), and First-born (/Protogonos/). It is surmised that the Mithraists worshipped Mithras as the mediator between Man and the supreme God of the upper and nether world. Mithraism and astrology Another more widely accepted interpretation takes its clue from the writer Quick Facts about: *Porphyry* Any igneous rock with crystals embedded in a finer groundmass of mineralsPorphyry , who recorded that the cave pictured in the tauroctony was intended to be "an image of the cosmos." According to this view, the cave depicted in that image may represent the "great cave" of the sky. This interpretation was supported by research by K. B. Stark in 1869, with astronomical support by Roger Beck (1984 and 1988), David Ulansey (1989) and Noel Swerdlow (1991). This interpretation is reinforced by the constant presence in Mitraic imagery of heavenly objects ? such as stars, the moon, and the sun ? and symbols for the signs of the Zodiac. In light of this interpretation, it has been suggested in recent times that the Mithraic religion is somehow connected to the end of the Quick Facts about: *astrological* Quick Summary not found for this subjectastrological "age of Quick Facts about: *Taurus* A zodiacal constellation in the northern hemisphere near Orion; between Aries and GeminiTaurus ," and the beginning of the "age of Quick Facts about: *Aries* A small zodiacal constellation in the northern hemisphere; between Pisces and TaurusAries ," which took place about the year 2000 BC. It has even been speclated that the religion may have originated at that time (although there is no record of it until the 2nd century BC). The identification of an "age" with a particular zodiac constellation is based on the sun's position during the Quick Facts about: *vernal equinox* March 21vernal equinox . Before 2000 BC, the Sun could have been seen against the stars of the constellation of Quick Facts about: *Taurus* A zodiacal constellation in the northern hemisphere near Orion; between Aries and GeminiTaurus at the time of Quick Facts about: *vernal equinox* March 21vernal equinox [had there been an eclipse]. Due to the precession of the equinoxes, on average every 2,160 years the Sun appears against the stars of a new Quick Facts about: *constellation* A configuration of stars as seen from the earthconstellation at Quick Facts about: *vernal equinox* March 21vernal equinox . The current Quick Facts about: *Astrological Age* Quick Summary not found for this subjectAstrological Age started when the equinox precessed into the constellation of Quick Facts about: *Pisces* A group of vertebrates comprising both cartilaginous and bony fishes and sometimes including the jawless vertebrates; not used technicallyPisces , in about the year 150 BC, with the 'Quick Facts about: *Age of Aquarius* Quick Summary not found for this subjectAge of Aquarius ' starting in 2600 AD. Indeed, the constellations common in the sky from about 4000 BC to 2000 BC were Quick Facts about: *Taurus* A zodiacal constellation in the northern hemisphere near Orion; between Aries and GeminiTaurus the Bull, Quick Facts about: *Canis Minor* A constellation east of Orion; contains ProcyonCanis Minor the Dog, Quick Facts about: *Hydra* Small tubular solitary freshwater hydrozoan polypHydra the Snake, Quick Facts about: *Corvus* Type genus of the Corvidae: crows and ravensCorvus the Raven, and Scorpio the Scorpion. Further support for this theory is the presence of a lion and a cup in some depictions of the tauroctony: indeed Quick Facts about: *Leo* A zodiacal constellation in northern hemisphere between Cancer and VirgoLeo (a lion) and Quick Facts about: *Aquarius* A zodiacal constellation in the southern hemisphere; between Capricornus and PiscesAquarius ("the cup-bearer") were the constellations seen as the northernmost (summer solstice) and southernmost (winter solstice) positions in the sky during the age of Taurus. The precession of the equinoxes was discovered, or at least publicized, by the Greek astronomer Quick Facts about: *Hipparchus* Greek astronomer and mathematician who discovered the precession of the equinoxes and made the first known star chart and is said to have invented trigonometry (second century BC)Hipparchus in the 2nd century BC. Whether the phenomenon was known by Mithraists previously is unknown. In any case, Mithras was presumed to be very powerful if he was able to rotate the heavens, and thus 'kill the bull' or displacing Taurus as the reigning image in the heavens. Mithraic ranks The members of a mithraeum were divided into seven ranks. All members were apparently expected to progress through the first four ranks, while only a few would go on to the three higher ranks. The first four ranks seem to represent spiritual progress, while the other three appear to have been specialized offices. The seven ranks were: /Corax/ (raven) /Nymphus/ (bride) /Miles/ (soldier) /Leo/ (lion) /Perses/ (Persian) /Heliodromus/ (sun-courier) /Pater/ (father) The new initiate became a /Corax/, while the /Leo/ was an Quick Facts about: *adept* Someone who is dazzlingly skilled in any fieldadept . The titles of the first four ranks suggest the possibility that advancement through the ranks was based on introspection and spiritual growth. History of Mithraism Mithraism before Rome Mithraism is generally considered to be of Quick Facts about: *Persia* An empire in southern Asia created by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC and destroyed by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCPersia n origins, specifically an outgrowth of Quick Facts about: *Zoroasterian* Quick Summary not found for this subjectZoroasterian culture, though not of Zoroaster's teachings. For Zoroaster was a monotheist, for whom Quick Facts about: *Ahuramazda* Quick Summary not found for this subjectAhuramazda was the One god. Quick Facts about: *Darius the Great* King of Persia who expanded the empire and invaded Greece but was defeated at the Battle of Marathon (550-486 BC)Darius the Great was equally stringent in the official monotheism of his reign: no god but Ahuramazda is ever mentioned in any of the numerous inscriptions that survive of his reign (521?485 BC). However, the official Quick Facts about: *cult* A system of religious beliefs and ritualscult is rarely the sole religion in an area. The following inscription from Quick Facts about: *Susa* A port city in eastern Tunisia on the MediterraneanSusa of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (Quick Facts about: *404* Quick Summary not found for this subject404 ?358 BC) demonstrates that not all the Achaemenid kings were as purely Zoroastrian as Darius: /"Artaxerxes the Great King, [...] says: [...] By the favor of Quick Facts about: *Ahuramazda* Quick Summary not found for this subjectAhuramazda , Quick Facts about: *Anahita* Quick Summary not found for this subjectAnahita , and Mithra, this palace I built. May Ahuramazda, Anahita, and Mithra protect me from all evil, and that which I have built may they not shatter nor harm."/ It is tempting to identify the Roman Mithras with the Persian Mithra, except that there is no known Persian legend or text about Mithra killing a bull or being associated with other animals. On the other hand, there is a story of Ahriman, the evil god in popular developments of Quick Facts about: *Zoroastrianism* System of religion founded in Persia in the 6th century BC by Zoroaster; set forth in the Zend-Avesta; based on concept of struggle between light (good) and dark (evil)Zoroastrianism , killing a bull. It is also hard to explain how the Sun-god Mithra would come to be worshipped in the windowless, cave-like mithraeum. A possible link between Persia and Rome, which could be the stage for these changes, may be the kingdoms of Parthia and Quick Facts about: *Pontus* An ancient region of northern Asia Minor on the Black Sea; it reached its height under Mithridates VI but was later incorporated into the Roman EmpirePontus in Asia Minor. Several of their kings were called /Mithradates/, meaning "given by Mithra", starting with Mithradates I of Parthia (died 138 BC). It would seem that, in those kingdoms, Mithra was a god whose power lent luster even to a king. And it was at Pergamum, in the 2nd century BC, that Greek sculptors started to produce bas-relief imagery of /Mithra Taurocthonos/, "Mithra the bull-slayer." Although the cult of Mithras never caught on in the Greek homeland, those sculptures may indicate the route between Persian Mithra and Roman Quick Facts about: *Mithras* Ancient Persian god of light and truth; sun godMithras . Around the first century AD, the Greek historian Quick Facts about: *Plutarch* Greek biographer who wrote Parallel Lives (46?-120 AD)Plutarch wrote about pirates of Quick Facts about: *Cilicia* Quick Summary not found for this subjectCilicia who practiced the Mithraic "secret rites" around 67 BC. Since Cilicia was the name of an area near Quick Facts about: *Turkey* A Eurasian republic in Asia Minor and the Balkans; achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1923Turkey and Greece, the Mithras mentioned by Plutarch may have been worship of the Persian god Mithra; or may have been associated with Ahriman, the Persian god who killed a bull. Mithraism in early Rome Mithraism arrived fully mature at Rome with the return of the legions from the east in the first century BC.As an action god of armies and the champion of heroes, he appealed to the professional Roman soldiers, who carried his cult to Quick Facts about: *Iberia* A peninsula in southwestern EuropeIberia , Quick Facts about: *Britain* A monarchy in northwestern Europe occupying most of the British Isles; divided into England and Scotland and Wales and Northern IrelandBritain , the Quick Facts about: *German* A person of German nationalityGerman frontiers and Quick Facts about: *Dacia* Quick Summary not found for this subjectDacia . The cult of Mithras began to attract attention at Rome about the end of the first century AD, perhaps in connection with the conquest of then-Zoroastrian Quick Facts about: *Armenia* A landlocked republic in southwestern Asia; formerly an Asian soviet; modern Armenia is but a fragment of ancient Armenia which was one of the world's oldest civilizations; throughout 2500 years the Armenian people have been invaded and oppressed by theirArmenia . The earliest material evidence for the Roman worship of Mithras dates from that period, in a record of Roman soldiers who came from the military garrison at Quick Facts about: *Carnuntum* Quick Summary not found for this subjectCarnuntum near the Danube River in the modern area of Quick Facts about: *Hungary* A republic in central EuropeHungary (the Roman province of Upper Quick Facts about: *Pannonia* Quick Summary not found for this subjectPannonia ). These soldiers fought against the Parthians and were involved in the suppression of the revolts in Jerusalem from Quick Facts about: *60* The cardinal number that is the product of ten and six60 A.D. to about Quick Facts about: *70* The cardinal number that is the product of ten and seven70 A.D. When they returned home, they made Mithraic dedications, probably in the year Quick Facts about: *71* Quick Summary not found for this subject71 or Quick Facts about: *72* Quick Summary not found for this subject72 . Quick Facts about: *Statius* Quick Summary not found for this subjectStatius mentions the typical Mithraic relief in his /Thebaid/ (Book i. 719,720), around A. D. Quick Facts about: *80* The cardinal number that is the product of ten and eight80 ; Plutarch's /Life of Pompey/ also makes it clear that the worship Mithras was well known at that time. By A. D. Quick Facts about: *200* Quick Summary not found for this subject200 , Mithraism had spread widely through the army, and also among traders and slaves. The German frontiers have yielded most of the archaeological evidence of its prosperity: small cult objects connected with Mithra turn up in archaeological digs from Quick Facts about: *Romania* A Balkan republic in southeastern EuropeRomania to Quick Facts about: *Hadrians Wall* Quick Summary not found for this subjectHadrian's Wall . Mithraism in the Roman Empire At Rome, the Quick Facts about: *third century* Quick Summary not found for this subjectthird century emperors encouraged Mithraism, because of the support which it afforded to the divine nature of monarchs. Mithras, identified with /Quick Facts about: *Sol Invictus* Quick Summary not found for this subjectSol Invictus / at Rome, thus became the giver of authority and victory to the Imperial House. From the time of Quick Facts about: *Commodus* Quick Summary not found for this subjectCommodus , who participated in its mysteries, its supporters were to be found in all classes. Concentrations of Mithraic temples are found on the outskirts of the Roman empire: along Quick Facts about: *Hadrians wall* Quick Summary not found for this subjectHadrian's wall in northern Quick Facts about: *England* A division of the United KingdomEngland three mithraea have been identified, at Housesteads, Carrawburgh and Rudchester. The discoveries are in the Quick Facts about: *University of Newcastle* Quick Summary not found for this subjectUniversity of Newcastle 's Museum of Antiquities, where a mithraeum has been recreated. Recent excavations in Quick Facts about: *London* The capital and largest city of England; located on the Thames in southeastern England; financial and industrial and cultural centerLondon have uncovered the remains of a Quick Facts about: *Mithraic temple* Quick Summary not found for this subjectMithraic temple near to the center of the once walled Roman settlement, on the bank of the Quick Facts about: *Walbrook* Quick Summary not found for this subjectWalbrook stream. Mithraea have also been found along the Danube and Quick Facts about: *Rhine* A major European river carrying more traffic than any other river in the world; flows into the North SeaRhine river frontier, in the province of Quick Facts about: *Dacia* Quick Summary not found for this subjectDacia (where in 2003 a temple was found in Alba-Iulia) and as far afield as Quick Facts about: *Numidia* An ancient kingdom (later a Roman province) North Africa in an area corresponding roughly to present-day AlgeriaNumidia in North Quick Facts about: *Africa* The second largest continent; located south of Europe and bordered to the west by the South Atlantic and to the east by the Indian OceanAfrica . As would be expected, Mithraic ruins are also found in the port city of Quick Facts about: *Ostia* Quick Summary not found for this subjectOstia , and in Quick Facts about: *Rome* Capital and largest city of Italy; on the Tiber; seat of the Roman Catholic Church; formerly the capital of the Roman Republic and the Roman EmpireRome the capital, where as many as seven hundred mithraea may have existed (a dozen have been identified). Its importance at Rome may be judged from the abundance of monumental remains: more than 75 pieces of sculpture, 100 Mithraic inscriptions, and ruins of temples and shrines in all parts of the city and its suburbs. A well-preserved late 2nd century mithraeum, with its altar and built-in stone benches, originally built beneath a Roman house (as was a common practice), survives in the crypt over which has been built the Church of San Clemente, Rome. The demise of Mithraism The beginning of the downfall of Mithraism dates from A. D. Quick Facts about: *275* Quick Summary not found for this subject275 , when Dacia was lost to the empire, and the invasions of the northern peoples resulted in the destruction of temples along a great stretch of frontier, the main stronghold of the cult. The spread of Quick Facts about: *Christianity* A monotheistic system of beliefs and practices based on the Old Testament and the teachings of Jesus as embodied in the New Testament and emphasizing the role of Jesus as saviorChristianity through the Empire, boosted by Constantine's option around Quick Facts about: *310* Quick Summary not found for this subject310 A. D., also took its toll. The reign of Quick Facts about: *Julian* Quick Summary not found for this subjectJulian and the usurpation of Quick Facts about: *Eugenius* Quick Summary not found for this subjectEugenius renewed the hopes of its devotees, but the victory of Theodosius in Quick Facts about: *394* Quick Summary not found for this subject394 may be considered the end of Mithraism's formal public existence. Mithraism still survived in certain cantons of the Alps into the Quick Facts about: *5th century* Quick Summary not found for this subject5th century , and clung to life with more tenacity in its Eastern homelands. Its eventual successor, as the carrier of Persian religion to the West, was Quick Facts about: *Manichaeism* A religion founded by Manes the third century; a synthesis of Zoroastrian dualism between light and dark and Babylonian folklore and Buddhist ethics and superficial elements of Christianity; spread widely in the Roman Empire but had largely died out by 10Manichaeism , which competed strenuously with Christianity for the status of world-religion. Connections There is much speculation that Mithraic belief was influenced by Quick Facts about: *Christian* A religious person who believes Jesus is the Christ and who is a member of a Christian denominationChristian beliefs, or vice-versa. Quick Facts about: *Ernest Renan* Quick Summary not found for this subjectErnest Renan , in /The Origins of Christianity,/ promoted the idea that Mithraism was the prime competitor to Christianity in the Quick Facts about: *second* 1/60 of a minute; the basic unit of time adopted under the Systeme International d'Unitessecond through the Quick Facts about: *fourth* The musical interval between one note and another four notes away from itfourth century AD, although most scholars feel the written claims that the emperors Quick Facts about: *Nero* Roman Emperor notorious for his monstrous vice and fantastic luxury (was said to have started a fire that destroyed much of Rome in 64) but the Empire remained prosperous during his rule (37-68)Nero , Quick Facts about: *Commodus* Quick Summary not found for this subjectCommodus , Quick Facts about: *Septimius Severus* Quick Summary not found for this subjectSeptimius Severus , Quick Facts about: *Caracalla* Quick Summary not found for this subjectCaracalla , and the Tetrarchs were initiates are dubious at best, and there is no evidence that Mithraic worship was accorded any official status as a Roman cult. Bull and cave themes are found in Christian shrines dedicated to the Quick Facts about: *archangel Michael* Quick Summary not found for this subjectarchangel Michael , who, in after the officialization of Christianity, became the patron "Quick Facts about: *Saint* A person who has died and has been declared a saint by canonizationSaint " of soldiers. Many of those shrines were converted Mithraea, for instance the sacred cavern at Quick Facts about: *Monte Gargano* Quick Summary not found for this subjectMonte Gargano in Quick Facts about: *Apulia* A region in southeastern Italy on the AdriaticApulia , refounded in Quick Facts about: *493* Quick Summary not found for this subject493 . It is hard to avoid the conclusion that the Mithras cult was transferred to the previously unvenerated archangel. Bull and crypt are linked in the Christian saint Quick Facts about: *Saturnin* Quick Summary not found for this subjectSaturnin (frequently "Sernin" or "Saturninus") of Quick Facts about: *Toulouse* A city on the Garonne River in southern France southeast of Bordeaux; a cultural center of medieval EuropeToulouse , Quick Facts about: *France* A republic in western Europe; the largest country wholly in EuropeFrance . The Mithraeum is retained as a crypt under his earliest church, evocatively named /"Notre-Dame du Quick Facts about: *Taur* Quick Summary not found for this subjectTaur ."/ It has also been speculated that the ancient Orobouros of Mithraism (the serpent wrapped about to bite its own tail) was adapted for a Christian symbol of the limited confines of time and space. The snake around a rock also is reminscent of the Midgard serpent Quick Facts about: *Jormungand* Quick Summary not found for this subjectJormungand who was said to surround Quick Facts about: *Midgard* (Norse mythology) the abode of humans in Norse mythologyMidgard (the Earth) according to Quick Facts about: *Norse* An inhabitant of ScandinaviaNorse traditions. Mithraic studies The First International Congress of Mithraic Studies was held in 1971 at Manchester, England. Quick Facts about: *Franz Cumont* Quick Summary not found for this subjectFranz Cumont (1868 - 1947) was the main proponent of the theory that Mithraism came originally from Quick Facts about: *Persia* An empire in southern Asia created by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC and destroyed by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCPersia . Cumont's student, Maarten J. Vermaseren, author of /Mithras, the Secret God/ (1963), was very active in translating Mithraic inscriptions. Quick Facts about: *Walter Burkert* Quick Summary not found for this subjectWalter Burkert , / Ancient Mystery Cults/, Harvard University Press, 1987. A book, based on his Jackson Lectures at Harvard University in 1982, dispels some misconceptions and stereotypes. External Links 3rd Century Mithraeum in the Circus Maximus, Rome : Good illustrated introductory article. University of Newcastle Mithras website . Mithraeum at Riegel, Baden-Wurtemburg : plan and photos (French). Phanes, the golden winged Primordial Being /Mithraism/ at L'Ecole Initiative David Ulansey, /Mithraism: the cosmic mysteries of Mithras/ Mithraism and Precession Criticial review of Ulansey's claims regarding Mithraism and the Age of Taurus. Abstract from M.J. Vermaseren, /Mithras, the Secret God,/ 1963 Places to see Museum of Quick Facts about: *Dieburg* Quick Summary not found for this subjectDieburg , Germany, displays finds from a mithraeum, including ceramics used in the service. The museum of Quick Facts about: *Hanau* Quick Summary not found for this subjectHanau , Germany displays a reconstruction of a mithraeum. The museum at the Quick Facts about: *University of Newcastle* Quick Summary not found for this subjectUniversity of Newcastle displays findings from the three sites along Hadrian's Wall and recreates a mithraeum. Church of St. Clement in Quick Facts about: *Rome* Capital and largest city of Italy; on the Tiber; seat of the Roman Catholic Church; formerly the capital of the Roman Republic and the Roman EmpireRome has a preserved mithraeum with the altarpiece still intact. More Subjects form Category Quick Facts about: *Latin literature* Quick Summary not found for this subjectLatin literature Quick Facts about: *Labarum* Quick Summary not found for this subjectLabarum Quick Facts about: *Lanista* Quick Summary not found for this subjectLanista Quick Facts about: *Lupercal* Quick Summary not found for this subjectLupercal Quick Facts about: *Mile* A unit of length equal to 1760 yardsMile Quick Facts about: *Masada* Quick Summary not found for this subjectMasada Quick Facts about: *Roman numerals* A symbol in the old Roman notation; I,V,X,L,C,D,M represent 1,5,10,50,100,500,1000 respectively in Arabic notationRoman numerals Quick Facts about: *List of Roman Emperors* Quick Summary not found for this subjectList of Roman Emperors Quick Facts about: *Roman* An inhabitant of the ancient Roman EmpireRoman Quick Facts about: *Roman law* The legal code of ancient Rome; codified under Justinian; the basis for many modern systems of civil lawRoman law * ------------------------------------------------------------------------ * The source of this article is Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia. 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