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[23]Sumer in the news

Sumer (or Shumer, Sumeria, Shinar) formed the southern part of
[24]Mesopotamia from the time of settlement by the Sumerians until the
time of [25]Babylonia. Sumerian [26]cuneiform script may pre-date any
other form of writing, and dates to no later than about [27]3500 BC.

Early History

The term "Sumerian" is actually an [28]exonym, first applied by the
[29]Akkadians. It has remained an exonym for a people who referred to
themselves as "Kiengi," which is usually interpreted to mean "land."
These people, with a language, culture, and, perhaps, appearance
different from their Semitic neighbors and successors are widely
believed to have been invaders or migrants, although it has proven
quite difficult to say exactly when such an event would have occurred.
Some archeologists have advanced claims that the Sumerians were, in
fact, local to the Mesopotamian plains.

Administration

The Sumerians inhabited various [30]city-states, each centered around
a temple called a [31]ziggurat. They believed that a [32]god owned
each city. Some of their major cities included Eridu, [33]Kish,
[34]Uruk and [35]Ur. Kings who controlled the [36]army and
[37]commerce ruled the cities.

Agriculture and Hunting

The Sumerians grew [38]barley, [39]chickpeas, lentils, [40]millet,
wheat, [41]turnips, [42]Dates, [43]onions, [44]garlic, [45]lettuce,
leeks and [46]mustard. They also farmed cattle, [47]sheep, [48]goats,
and [49]pigs. They used [50]oxen as their primary beasts of burden and
[51]donkeys as their primary transport animal. Sumerians hunted
[52]fish and [53]fowl.

Sumerian [54]agriculture depended heavily on [55]irrigation. The
irrigation was accomplished by the use of [56]shadufs, [57]canals,
[58]channels, [59]dykes, [60]weirs, and [61]reservoirs. The canals
required frequent repair and continual removal of [62]silt. The
government required individuals to work on the canals, although the
rich were able to exempt themselves.

Using the canals, farmers would flood their fields and then drain the
water. Next they let [63]oxen stomp the ground and kill [64]weeds.
They then dragged the fields with pickaxes. After drying, they plowed,
[65]harrowed, raked thrice, and pulverized with a [66]mattock.

Sumerians harvested during the dry [67]fall season in three-person
teams consisting of a [68]reaper, a binder, and a sheaf arranger. The
farmers would use threshing wagons to separate the [69]cereal heads
from the stalks and then use threshing sleds to disengage the
[70]grain. They then [71]winnowed the grain/chaff mixture.

Architecture

Sumerians made use of buttresses, recesses, half columns, and clay
nails.

Arts and Crafts

Sumerian [72]potters decorated pots with [73]cedar oil [74]paints. The
potters used a [75]bow drill to produce the [76]fire needed for baking
the pottery.

The [77]masons and [78]jewelers made use of [79]ivory, [80]gold,
[81]silver, and [82]galena.

Culture

Though females could achieve a higher status in Sumer than in some
other [83]civilizations, the culture remained predominantly
male-dominated.

Historian [84]Alan Marcus says: "Sumerians held a rather dour
perspective on life".

A Sumerian writes: "Tears, lament, anguish, and depression are within
me. Suffering overwhelms me. Evil fate holds me and carries off my
life. Malignant sickness bathes me."

Another Sumerian writes, "Why am I counted among the ignorant? Food is
all about, yet my food is hunger. On the day shares were alloted, my
allotted share was suffering."

Economy

The Sumerians used slaves. Slave women worked as [85]weavers,
[86]pressers, [87]millers, and [88]porters.

[89]Stone, [90]silver, [91]copper, and [92]wood came from India and
[93]Africa. Camel [94]caravans brought the goods to Sumer, along with
[95]ox-drawn [96]wagons and sledges. Sumerian trading also used
[97]boats.

Medicine

[98]Laxatives, [99]purgatives, and [100]diuretics formed the majority
of Sumerian [101]medicines.

Sumerians manufactured [102]saltpeter from [103]urine, [104]lime,
[105]ash, and [106]salt. They would combine this with [107]milk,
[108]snakeskin, turtle shell, cassia, [109]myrtle, [110]thyme,
[111]willow, [112]fig, [113]pear, [114]fir, and/or [115]date. They
would mix these agents with [116]wine and spread the result as a
salve, or mix it with beer and consume orally.

Sumerians explained [117]disease as the consequence of a demon
becoming trapped within the body and trying to eat its way out. The
medicines aimed to persuade the demon that continued residence within
the body would prove distasteful. They often placed a [118]lamb next
to a diseased person and hoped to entice the demon into the lamb,
which they would then butcher. Failing available lambs, they would try
using a [119]statue which, should the demon enter the statue, they
would cover in [120]bitumen.

Military

[121]City walls defended Sumerian cities. The Sumerians engaged in
[122]siege warfare between their cities, and the [123]mudbrick walls
failed to deter foes who had the time to pry out the bricks.

Sumerian armies consisted mostly of [124]infantry. Light infantrymen
carried battle-axes, [125]daggers, and [126]spears. The regulary
infantry also used [127]copper [128]helmets, [129]felt cloaks, and
[130]leather [131]kilts.

The Sumerians invented the [132]chariot, which they harnessed to
[133]onagers. These early chariots functioned less effectively in
combat than did later designs, and some have suggested that chariots
served primarily as transports, though the crew carried battle-axes
and [134]lances. The Sumerian chariot comprised a four-[135]wheeled
device manned by a crew of two and harnessed to four onagers. The
carriage was composed of a [136]woven basket and the wheels had a
solid three-piece design.

Sumerians used slings and simple bows. (Only later did mankind invent
the composite bow.)

Religion

Sumerian [137]temples consisted of a central [138]nave with aisles
along either side. Flanking the aisles would be rooms for the priests.
At one end would stand the podium and a [139]mudbrick table for
[140]animal and [141]vegetable sacrifices. [142]Granaries and
storehouses were usually located near the temples. After a time the
Sumerians began to place the temples atop artificial, terraced, and
multi-layered hills: the [143]ziggurats.

The Sumerian religion is thought to be the basis or source of
inspiration for a number of modern religions. The Sumerians worshipped
[144]Nammu the Mother Goddess, Inanna the goddess of love (who is
equivalent to the akkadian goddess [145]Ishtar), [146]Enlil the god of
the wind and [147]Marduk the god of thunder.

The Sumerian dingirs ([148]gods) each had associations with different
cities, and their religious importance often waxed and waned with the
political power of the associated cities. The dingirs allegedly
created humans from clay for the purpose of serving them. The dingirs
often expressed their anger and frustration through earthquakes: the
gist of Sumerian religion stressed that all of humanity stood at the
mercy of the gods.

Sumerians believed that the [149]universe consisted of a flat
[150]disk enclosed by a [151]tin [152]dome. The Sumerian
[153]afterlife involved a descent into a vile [154]nether-world to
spend eternity in a wretched [155]existence.

See also: [156]Sumerian mythology

Technology

Examples of Sumerian technology include: [157]saws, [158]leather,
[159]chisels, [160]hammers, [161]braces, [162]bits, [163]nails,
[164]pins, [165]rings, [166]hoes, axes, [167]knives, [168]lancepoints,
[169]arrowheads, [170]swords, [171]glue, [172]daggers, waterskins,
[173]bags, harnesses, [174]boats, [175]armor, [176]quivers,
[177]scabbards, [178]boots, [179]sandals, and [180]harpoons.

The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacked [181]minerals and [182]trees.
Sumerian structures comprised plano-convex [183]mudbrick, not fixed
with [184]mortar or with [185]cement. As plano-convex bricks (being
rounded) are somewhat unstable in behaviour, Sumerian bricklayers
would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows.
They would fill the gaps with [186]bitumen, [187]grain stalks,
[188]marsh reeds, and [189]weeds.

The Sumerians had three main types of boats:
* skin boats comprised reeds and animal skins
* sailboats featured [190]bitumen waterproofing
* wooden-oared ships, sometimes pulled upstream by people and
animals walking along the nearby banks.

Downfall

As the local states grew in strength, the Sumerians began to lose
their political [191]hegemony over most parts of [192]Mesopotamia. The
Amorites conquered Sumer and founded [193]Babylon. The [194]Hurrians
of [195]Armenia established the empire of [196]Mitanni in northern
Mesopotamia around 2000 BC, while the Babylonians controlled the
south. Both groups defended themselves against the [197]Egyptians and
the [198]Hittites. The Hittites defeated Mitanni but were repulsed by
the Babylonians; but the [199]Kassites defeated the Babylonians in
[200]1460 BC. The kassites were in turn defeated by the [201]Elamites
around [202]1150 BC.

Legacy

The Sumerians are perhaps remembered most for their many inventions.
Many authorities credit them with the invention of the [203]wheel and
the potter's wheel. Their [204]cuneiform writing system was the first
we have evidence of, pre-dating Egyptian [205]hieroglyphics by at
least fifty years. They were among the first formal astronomers. They
invented the chariot and possibly military formations. Perhaps most
importantly, many scholars believe the Sumerians were the first to
domesticate both plants and animals, in the former case by the
systematic planting and harvesting of [206]mutant grass strains known
today as [207]einkorn and [208]emmer wheat, in the latter case by
confining and breeding ancestral [209]sheep (similar to [210]mouflon)
and [211]cattle ([212]aurochs). These inventions and innovations
easily place the Sumerians among the most creative cultures in human
pre-history and history.

Writing and text-material

The textual knowledge of the Sumerians is extremely widespread. A
great number of texts consists of economical notices and contracts.
Very common are also different letters. The most famous of these are
the OB letters from Mari, which is situated in the region of the
Middle Euphrate.

Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects like statues or
bricks are also very common in the different periods of the cultures,
which reigned in Mesopotamia or the Ancient Near East.

The people who were able to write, wrote in cuneiform script. The
first written language, which used this kind of script, was probably
Sumerian. This language offers for the modern linguistic interesting
people some strong problems. The problem isn´t the understanding. More
difficult is the interpretation of the syntax of the language,
especially the verb, because the script doesn´t give in many cases the
full grammatical structure of the language.

See also:
* [213]Gilgamesh epic
* [214]Sumerian king list
* [215]Sumerian architecture

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External links

* [216]The History of the Ancient Near East
* [217]Sumerian texts with complete translations of more than 300
sumerian literatic texts.

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183. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/m/mudbrick.htm
184. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/m/mortar.htm
185. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/c/cement.htm
186. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/b/Asphalt.htm
187. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/g/grain.htm
188. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/r/reed-%28plant%29.htm
189. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/w/weed.htm
190. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/b/Asphalt.htm
191. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/h/hegemony.htm
192. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/M/Mesopotamia.htm
193. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/B/Babylon.htm
194. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/H/Hurrian.htm
195. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/A/Armenia.htm
196. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/M/Mitanni.htm
197. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/H/History-of-Egypt.htm
198. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/H/Hittites.htm
199. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/K/Kassites.htm
200. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/1/1460s-BC.htm
201. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/E/Elamite-Empire.htm
202. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/1/1150s-BC.htm
203. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/w/wheel.htm
204. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/C/Cuneiform-%28script%29.htm
205. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/h/Egyptian-hieroglyph.htm
206. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/m/mutant.htm
207. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/e/Einkorn-wheat.htm
208. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/e/Emmer-wheat.htm
209. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/s/sheep.htm
210. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/m/mouflon.htm
211. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/c/cattle.htm
212. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/a/aurochs.htm
213. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/G/Epic-of-Gilgamesh.htm
214. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/S/Kings-of-Sumeria.htm
215. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/S/Sumerian-architecture.htm
216. http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Sumer.html
217. http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/
218. http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/index.htm
219. http://www.worldhistory.com/index.htm
220. http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html
221. http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html
222. http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer
223. http://www.worldhistory.com/worldhistory.htm
224. mailto:paul at infobaseventures.com