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The Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ version 1.8html
by [1]Christopher B. Siren (Nov. 1994)
[2]cbsiren at hopper.unh.edu
last revised (August 12th, 1999)
changes since last revision:
August 1999: added clarifying remark to Bahamut answer.
October 1995: lengthened Bahamut answer; added a couple external
links; made changes for move to UNH.
The latest copy of this FAQ should be available via anonymous ftp at:
rtfm.mit.edu at /pub/usenet/news.answers/assyrbabyl-faq
* [3]I. Overview (including regional history)
* [4]II. So these are just like the Sumerian deities right?
* [5]III. Who were the gods and heroes of the Babylonians?
+ [6]A. The older gods
+ [7]B. The younger Anunnaki and Igigi
+ [8]C. The chthonic gods
+ [9]D. The heroes and monsters
* [10]IV. What about the Underworld and Heaven and all that?
* [11]V. Hey! I read that Cthulhu is really some Babylonian or
Sumerian god, how come he's not there under Kutu?
* [12]VI. So, in AD&D, Tiamat is this five-headed evil dragon, but
they got her from the Enuma Elish, right? What about her
counterpart, Bahamut?
* [13]VII. Where did you get this info and where can I find out
more?
I. Overview (including regional history)
First, some definitions: Mesopotamia, in general, refers to the area
of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Assyria, was the northern portion
of Mesopotamia, who's capital was Ashur (until 883 BCE, when it was
moved to Calah/Nimrud) and whose reach included the major city of
Nineveh (Ninua). Sumer refers to the southern delta region, whose
primary cities included Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. Akkad was a region north
of Sumer which included the area around modern Baghdad as well as the
ancient sites of Babylon, Kish, and Nippur.
The political organization of the region was basically a collection of
city-states. _Sargon of Agade_ (2371-16 BCE) united the regions of
Sumer and Akkad. His descendants eventually lost control of the empire
due to pressures from the Hurrians, the Hittites, and other invaders,
not to mention internal pressures. In the south Sumer again gained
ascendancy, dominated by the city-state Ur. Sumer then collapsed under
the Amorites around 2000 BCE. They established many sub- kingdoms
including Assyria and Babylon.
Assyria attained a brief period of dominance under Shamshi-Adad
(1813-1781 BCE) but was soon superseded by Babylon under Hammurapi
(Hammurabi) (1792-50 BCE) who established what once were thought to be
the first written law codes (more recent discoveries include law codes
from a couple centuries prior to Hammurapi). The first Babylonian
dynasty had begun in 1894 BCE, coinciding with the _Old Babyonian_
period of literature. It collapsed in 1595 BCE when the Hittites
sacked its eponymous capital.
_Assyria_ had been taken over by the Mitanni (a Hurrian speaking
kingdom) but established its independence in the mid 14th century BCE.
Under Tukulti-Ninurta I Assyria dominated the entire fertile crescent
in the late 13th century. By the time of Tiglath-Pileser I, about a
century later it had directed more of its attention westwards towards
the Levant in the West and lost control of Babylon and the south.
Slowly Assyria began to expand again, reaching its apex between 750
and 650 BCE under the rulers Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II,
Sennacherib, and Ashuribanipal (668-627 BCE). The empire collapsed
from invaders with Nineveh falling to Nabopalasar of Babylon in 612
BCE and the empire dying in 605 BCE.
Meanwhile, Babylon had been reasserting itself. Nabopalasar had begun
the Chaldean dynasty during his rule begining in 625 BCE. This period
is also known as the _Neo-Babylonian_ period although that term also
describes the language of that era. Under Nabopalasar's son
Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon expanded westward, taking Jerusalem in 586
BCE. Babylon fell in the mid-540's to Cyrus the Persian whose empire
lasted until the late 300's BCE when Alexander of Macedon established
his empire and renamed the area "Mesopotamia". (See also Shawn
Bayern's [14]History Babylonia)
II. So these guys were just like the Sumerian Deities right?
Well some of them were mostly like the Sumerian Deities, but as you
might expect, they have their own kinks and differences. In general
the following relationships apply:
Sumerian name Babylonian Name
[15]An [16]Anu
Ki/[17]Ninhursag [18]Aruru, Mammi
[19]Enlil [20]Ellil
[21]Enki [22]Ea
[23]Nanna [24]Sin
[25]Inanna [26]Ishtar
[27]Utu [28]Shamash
[29]Ninlil Mullitu, Mylitta
This is not a cut and dry relation. Sumerian and Babylonian names
appear in the same Babylonian document, sometimes referring to the
same entity. In addition, there are numerous local variations of these
deities names which, in the next section, such 'optional' names appear
in parentheses after the more prevalent name.
III. Who were the gods and the heroes of the Babylonians then?
A. The Older (genealogically) Gods:
Apsu
"The Epic of Creation (_Enuma Elish_): Tablet I"
He is the underworld ocean, and the begetter of the skies and
of the earth. The father of [30]Lahmu, [31]Lahamu, [32]Anshar
and [33]Kishar. He could not quell the noise of them or their
children. He colluded with his vizier [34]Mummu to silence the
gods and allow [35]Tiamat to rest, after Tiamat rejected the
idea. [36]Ea found out about his plans, cast a sleeping spell
on him and killed him.
(Dalley pp. 232-235, 318)
Tiamat
"The Epic of Creation (_Enuma Elish_): Tablets I-III"
She is primeval Chaos, bearer of the skies and the earth,
mother of [37]Lahmu, [38]Lahamu, [39]Anshar, and of [40]Kishar.
Traditionally conceived of as aserpent or dragon of some sort,
this idea does not have any basis in the _Enuma Elish_ itself.
Within that work her physical description includes, a tail, a
thigh, "lower parts" (which shake together), a belly, an udder,
ribs, a neck, a head, a skull, eyes, nostrils, a mouth, and
lips. She has insides, a heart, arteries, and blood. The clamor
of the younger gods disturbed her, but she continued to indulge
them. When her husband [41]Apsu and his vizier [42]Mummu
suggested that they kill the younger gods, she grew furious,
calmed down and rejected the plan. Her restless subservient
gods goaded her into action after Apsu is slain. They prepared
to wage war against the other gods. As Mother Hubur, the
underworld river, who fashions all things, she bore giant
snakes with venom for blood, and cloaked dragons with a godlike
radiance yet with a terrible visage, for the war. She rallied a
horned serpent, a mushussu-dragon, a lahmu-hero, a
ugallu-demon, a rabid dog, a scorpion-man, umu-demons, a
fish-man, a bull-man, and eleven others underneath her champion
and new lover, [43]Qingu. She gave Qingu the Tablet of
Destinies to facilitate his command and attack.
(Dalley pp. 231-249)
"The Epic of Creation (_Enuma Elish_): Tablets IV-V"
[44]Marduk came with his host to attack her. Qingu's strategy
initially confuses him, and Tiamat tried to enspell him,
hurling jibes at him. She was rebuffed and incited into single
combat with Marduk. She continued to cast her spell and Marduk
nets her, and throws a wind at her. She tried to swallow it and
was undone - distended, shot, sliced in two and cut in the
heart. Her crushed skull heralded her death, and half of her
body was used to roof up the sky. Her eyes became the sources
of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
(Dalley pp. 249-257)
Lahmu and Lahamu
- 'the hairy one' or 'muddy' they have three pairs of curls,
and are naked except for a triple sash. They were the first
children of [45]Tiamat and [46]Apsu. [47]Kappa was sent to
fetch them by [48]Anshar, to help send off [49]Marduk on his
fight with Tiamat and be rallied to his side. They complied and
helped find a princely shrine for Marduk
Anshar
- 'whole sky' He is the father of [50]Anu and the child of
[51]Tiamat and [52]Apsu. He is often paired with [53]Kishara,
and his qualities were assimilated with [54]Ashur. When [55]Ea
learned of Tiamat's planned war, Anshar tried to stir him into
attacking her first, but was rebuffed. He turned to Anu and
sent him on a peace mission to Tiamat, but Anu returned
unsuccessful. An assembly was convened and [56]Marduk came
forth at Ea's urging, promising to deliver Tiamat's defeated
body to Anshar's feet. He required of the assembly a promise
that he would be given the leadership of the pantheon after he
is victorious. He had [57]Kappa gather [58]Lahmu, [59]Lahamu,
and the other gods together to send off Marduk on his fight and
rally them to his side. When they arrive they help find a
princely shrine for Marduk.
Kishar
- 'whole earth' , She is the mother of [60]Anu and the child of
[61]Tiamat and [62]Apsu.
Anu
- Sumerian for "heaven", a sky god, father and king of the
gods. He is the son of [63]Anshar and [64]Kishar. He lives in
the third heaven. The Eanna in Uruk was dedicated both to him
and consort. His first consort was Antu. They produced the
Anunnaki - the underworld gods, and the utukki - the seven evil
demons. His second consort was Innina ([65]Ishtar). He is a god
of monarchs and is not friendly to the common people. He is a
"King of the Igigi". He is assigned the sky as his domain in
'Atrahasis'. His 'kishru's (shooting stars) have awesome
strength. He has the ability that anything he puts into words,
becomes reality. He is Niudimmud's ([66]Ea's) father.
He calls [67]Dumuzi and Gizzida speak on Adapa's behalf.
He agrees to send the Bull of Heaven after [68]Gilgamesh on
Ishtar's behalf, if she has made sure that the people of Uruk
are properly provisioned for seven years. He decrees that
either Gilgamesh or [69]Enkidu must die for the slaying of
Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. He sends [70]Kakka to Kurnugi
to tell [71]Ereshkigal to send a messenger to receive a gift
from him.
When [72]Anzu stole the Tablet of Destinies from [73]Ellil, he
called for one of the gods to slay Anzu and thereby greatly
increase his reputation. He gave [74]Marduk the four winds to
play with. He made a whirlwind and a flood wave and stirred up
[75]Tiamat on purpose. When Tiamat's retaliation for [76]Apsu's
death was discovered, Anshar sent him on a peace mission to
her, but he returned unsuccessfully. He helps form a princely
shrine for Marduk prior to his battle with Tiamat, and gives
him the Anu-power of decreeing fates, such that his word is
law.
He and Earth father the Sebitti. He gives them fearsome fates
and powers and puts them at [77]Erra's command, to aid in
killing noisy, over-populous people and animals.
(See also the Sumerian [78]An and the Hittite [79]Anus)
Symbol: sacred shine surmounted by the divine horned cap.
Sacred number: 60
Astrological region: heavenly equator
Sacred animal: the heavenly Bull
Antu(m)
- Sumerian for "the earth", she is a colorless being who was
the first consort of [80]Anu. They produced the Anunnaki - the
underworld gods, and the utukki - the seven evil demons. She
was replaced by [81]Isthar ([82]Inanna) who is sometimes her
daughter.
Aruru (Ninmah, Nintu, [83]Ninhursaga, Belet-ili, Mami)
-She is the mother goddess and was responsible for the creation
of man with the help of [84]Enlil or [85]Enki. She is also
called the womb goddess, and midwife of the gods. On [86]Ea's
advice, she acted on his direction and mixed clay with the
blood of the god [87]Geshtu-e, in order to shape and birth
seven men and seven women. These people would bear the workload
of the Igigi. She also added to the creation of [88]Gilgamesh,
and, at [89]Anu's command, made [90]Enkidu in Anu's image by
pinching off a piece of clay, throwing it into the wilderness,
and birthing him there. Ea called her to offer her beloved
[91]Ninurta as the one who should hunt [92]Anzu. She does so.
(See also the Hittite [93]Hannahannas)
Mammetum
- the maker or mother of fate.
Nammu
- one of "the pure goddesses", [94]Ea's mother, associated with
fresh water.
B. The Anunnaki, Igigi, and the Younger Gods
Ellil ([95]Enlil) - Sumerian for "wind/storm-god".
Initially the leader of the pantheon, he has since relinquished
his spot to [96]Anu. Possible slayer of [97]Enmesharra and
avenger of his father Anu. His role in this was upplanted by
[98]Marduk by the Babylonians. He is a short-tempered god who
was responsible for the great flood. He is the creator of
mankind. He is thought to favor and help those in need. He
guards the "tablets of destiny", which allow him to determines
the fate of all things animate or inanimate. They was once
stolen from him by a Zu, a storm- bird (a bird with some human
qualities). They were recovered and Zu faced judgment by Ellil.
His consort is [99]Ninlil, his chief-minister is [100]Nusku. He
was also god of the lands and of the earth. He is a "King of
the Anunnaki". He was their counselor warrior. He and his
people receive the earth in 'Atrahasis'. His temple is Duranki.
When the Igigi rebelled against him, and surrounded his house
and called for Anu. After man was created in response to the
Igigi's grievances, he grew weary of their noise and released
several disasters upon them, after each one, man recovered and
then he released a new one. The disasters included disease,
flood, drought, and the great flood. He appointed [101]Humbaba
to guard the cedar forest and terrify mankind. He decreed that
[102]Enkidu must die for the slaying of the Bull of Heaven and
Humbaba. He does not answer [103]Gilgamesh's plea to restore
Enkidu to life. He found a throne for [104]Etana to rule from
in Kish. He appointed [105]Anzu as the guardian of his bath
chamber, but while bathing, Anzu stole from him the Tablet of
Destinies, and his Ellil-power. [106]Ninurta, with [107]Ea's
advise and [108]Belet-ili's urgings slew Anzu and recovered the
Tablet of Destinies. (See also the Hittite [109]Ellil)
Symbol: Seven small circles representing the Pleiades.
Sacred number: 50
Astrological region: north of "the way of Anu" ie. 12 degrees
north of the equator.
Ea ([110]Enki, Nudimmud)
- god of the waters. He is in charge of the bolt which bars the
sea. He knows everything. He is the "Lord of Wisdom" and "Lord
of Incantations". When he speaks, of a thing, it will be made.
He is the son of [111]Anu, but sometimes he is the son of
[112]Anshar. [113]Dumkina is his consort. He created [114]Zaltu
as a complement to [115]Ishtar. He discovered the plot of
[116]Apsu and [117]Mummu, put Apsu under a sleeping spell, and
slew him and put Mummu into a daze, tied him up, and slew him.
He then named his quarters Apsu, the underworld ocean that
supports the world. He and Damkina produced [118]Bel and
[119]Marduk. (Bel is likely to be another name for Marduk.)
He learned that [120]Tiamat was planning a war of revenge
against the gods. His father Anshar tries to spur him into
making the first attack against Tiamat, but Ea rebuffs him.
When Anu's peace mission fails, he urges Marduk into action.
He suggests the method of creating man, in response to the
heavy workload of the Igigi. As mankind's patron, he is the
instructor of all crafts, writing, building, farming, and
magic. He advises mankind when other gods would do them harm.
He granted [121]Adapa understanding, to teach mankind. When
Adapa used this knowledge to break the wing of the South Wind,
he cursed him and told him to complain of [122]Dumuzi and
[123]Gizzida's absence to Anu. While in Anu's court, he advises
Adapa not to eat the bread of eternal life (lest he forfeit his
life on earth). He refuses to flood mankind for [124]Ellil.
Eventually he accedes, but only after advising [125]Atrahasis
to build a boat in which to weather the flood.
He tells [126]Nergal to allow [127]Enkidu's spirit to visit
with [128]Gilgamesh. When Ea is informed of [129]Ishtar's
imprisonment in the Underworld, he creates 'His appearance is
bright' to stand at [130]Ereshkigal's gate and mellow her mood
and have her swear an oath by the great gods. He instructs
Nergal on how to build the gift throne for Ereshkigal, and
hides him with spring water to hide him from [131]Namtar after
he returned from the underworld.
When Anu and the gods could not locate a volunteer to kill
[132]Anzu, he told the Igiggi that he would pick one. He
instructs [133]Belet-ili/[134]Mami to send [135]Ninurta to slay
Anzu and, through [136]Sharur advises Ninurta on how to defeat
the creature. (See also the Canaanite Heyan aka
[137]Kothar-u-Khasis and the Hittite [138]Ayas)
Symbol: Ram's head; goat-fish (a goat's head on a fish's body)
Sacred number: 40
Astrological region: 12 degrees south in the sky (includes
Pisces and Aquarius)
Mummu
- the craftsman god. He is attendant to [139]Ea and [140]Apsu's
vizier. He is very fond of Apsu and colludes with him to
disperse the younger gods when they disturb [141]Tiamat, even
after Tiamat rejects the plan. Ea found out about his plan,
enspelled him and tied him up.
Qingu (older spelling - Kingu)
- [142]Tiamat's battle leader and second husband/lover after
[143]Apsu. He is promoted and enhanced to a leading position
from among the ranks. Tiamat places the Tablet of Destinies in
his possession, giving him the [144]Anu-power, such that his
word is law and affects reality. He gives his army
fire-quenching breath and paralyzing venom. His battle strategy
initially confuses [145]Marduk. He is defeated by Marduk and
counted among the dead gods. For his part in the war he was
made by Marduk to provide the blood for the creation of man -
filling the role that [146]Geshtu-e takes in other versions of
the creation of man story.
Sin ([147]Nannar)
- moon god, son of [148]Enlil. He has a beard of Lapis Lazuli
and rides a winged bull. His consort is [149]Ningal. He is the
father of [150]Shamash. He does not answer [151]Gilgamesh's
plea to restore [152]Enkidu to life.
Symbol: Crescent
Sacred number: 30
Sphere of influence: the moon, calendars, vegetation, cattle
fertility
Ningal
- the consort of [153]Sin, the mother of [154]Shamash
Ishtar (Ishhara, Irnini, [155]Inanna)
She is [156]Anu's second consort, daughter of [157]Anu and [158]Antum,
(sometimes daughter of [159]Sin), and sometimes the sister of
[160]Ereshkigal. She is the goddess of love, procreation, and war. She
is armed with a quiver and bow. Her temples have special prostitutes
of both genders. She is often accompanied by a lion, and sometimes
rides it. The Eanna in Uruk is dedicated both to her and Anu. As
Irnini, she has a parakku (throne-base) at the cedar mountain.
"The Descent of Ishtar to the Underworld"
She determines to go to the Underworld. She threatened to smash the
gate and raise the dead so that they would eat and outnumber the
living unless the gatekeeper would open it for her. She holds the
great keppu-toy (a whipping top). She is allowed in by the gate
keeper, who takes her through seven gates to [161]Ereshkigal's realm.
By Ereshkigal's rites, she is stripped of items of clothing as she
passes through each of the gates: first her crown, then her earrings,
then her necklace, then her tudditu (breast pins), then her belt of
birthstones, then her wrist and ankle bangles, and finally her
garment. While in the underworld, no creatures engaged in acts of
procreation. She was kept in Egalgina and brought forth by [162]Namtar
after being sprinkled with the water of life, and after 'His
appearance is bright' has been cursed. She is led back out through the
gates, given back her accouterments, and released in exchange for
[163]Dumuzi (Tammuz).
[164]Cylinder Seal of Ishtar (Image from the Oriental Institute at U.
Chicago)
"The Epic of Gilgamesh"
She loved [165]Tammuz in her youth, although he spends half the
year in the nether world wailing. She loved a lion, a stallion,
a shepherd, all of whom she required great sacrifice from and
abandoned. She loved Ishullanu, a gardener who offered her
fruit, but was taken aback when she revealed herself to him, so
she turned him into a frog.
After [166]Gilgamesh cleans himself up, following his defeat of
[167]Humbaba, she asks him to be her lover and husband, and
offers him many gifts and the homage of earthly rulers and
kingdoms. She is rejected, both because of her godly nature,
and as a fair-weather lover. Ishtar asks Anu to send the Bull
of Heaven to kill Gilgamesh, and he agrees.
(See also the Hittite [168]Shaushka and the Canaanite
[169]Astarte and [170]Anat)
Symbol: an eight or sixteen-pointed star
Sacred number: 15
Astrological region: Dibalt (Venus) and the Bowstar (Sirius)
Sacred animal: lion, (dragon)
Siduri
- the barmaid, a manifestation of [171]Ishtar who dwells at the
lip of the sea, beyond which is the Land of Life, where
[172]Utnapishtim lives. She speaks with [173]Gilgamesh. She
wears a veil.
Shamash (Babbar, [174]Utu)
Shamash is the sun god, the son of [175]Sin and [176]Ningal. He
rises from the mountains with rays out of his shoulders. He
enters and exits the underworld through a set of gates in the
mountain (exits from Mt. Mashu, "Gilgamesh IX ii") guarded by
scorpion-people. He travels both on foot and in a chariot,
pulled by fiery mules. He upholds truth, and justice. He is a
lawgiver and informs oracles. [177]Nergal is a corrupt aspect
of his nature.
"Etana"
In Kish, the eagle and the serpent swore an oath to Shamash
that they would not overstep the limits of Shamash. The eagle
broke the oath and ate the eggs of the serpent. Shamash, 'whose
net is as wide as earth', told the serpent how to serve the
eagle justice. The serpent lured the eagle with a bull carcass
and captured him. The eagle requested to be spared and the
serpent refused, saying that Shamash's punishment would fall on
him if he did not carry it out. He cut the eagle's wings and
left him to die in a pit. The eagle prayed to Shamash for
mercy, and Shamash refused to help personally, but sent
[178]Etana to help the eagle. He agreed to help Etana's
infertility problem if Etana would help the eagle.
"Epic of Gilgamesh"
He loves [179]Gilgamesh, hates evil and instigates Gilgamesh's
quest against [180]Humbaba, guiding him and receiving prayers
from him along the way. He tries to intercede to [181]Ellil on
[182]Enkidu's behalf, but is unsuccessful. He rebukes Enkidu
for cursing the Stalker and the temple prostitute for bringing
him out of the wild.
See also the Hittite [183]Sun-god and the Canaanite
[184]Shapshu.
Symbol: Solar disk with a four point star inside with rays
coming from between the points. A winged disk.
Sacred Number: 20
Aia
- [185]Shamash's consort
Kakka
[186]Anshar and [187]Anu's vizier, who is sent to Kurnugi to
deliver [188]Ereshkigal the message that Anu wishes to deliver
a gift to her via one of her messengers. Anshar sends him to
round up [189]Lahmu and [190]Lahamu to send off [191]Marduk for
his battle with [192]Tiamat and rally them to his side.
Ninlil
[193]Ellil's consort. (see also [194]Sumerian Ninlil.)
Nusku
the god of fire and [195]Ellil's vizier.
Gerra(Gibil)
- the god of fire, Anunitu ([196]Antu)'s son. He despairs and
will not attack [197]Anzu after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of
Destinies from [198]Ellil.
Ishum (Hendursanga - 'lofty mace')
- He is the god of fire, and is adept at using weapons. He
lights the way in front of [199]Erra and the Sebitti. He
advises Erra against attacking Marduk or his people in Babylon.
When Erra takes [200]Marduk's seat, Ishum persuades him against
destroying Babylon, finally appeasing him by promising that the
other gods would acknowledge themselves as his servants.
Kalkal
- [201]Ellil's doorkeeper in Nippur.
Dumkina
- [202]Ea's lover, mother of [203]Bel and [204]Marduk (note Bel
is likely to be another title for Marduk).
Nash (Nanshe)
- one of "the pure goddesses", [205]Ea's daughter. Her cult
center is Sirara near Lagash.
Zaltu
- "strife", goddess created by [206]Ea to complement
[207]Ishtar.
Ninurta (shares some characteristics with Ningrisu)
- Chamberlain of the Anunnaki, the war god, the champion of the
land. He is the child of [208]Ellil and [209]Mami. He was born
in Ekur, Ellil's temple in Ekur. He is responsible for some
small scale irrigation. He has a bow and arrow, sometimes they
are poisoned. He also carries the mace, Sharur, which can act
as a messenger between Ninurta and other beings (notably
[210]Ea). He can marshal the Seven of Battle, who can generate
whirlwinds.
He bound the Mountain of Stones in his fury, conquered the
[211]Anzu with his weapon and slew the bull-man inside the Sea.
(Dalley p. 204).
After the Tablet of Destinies was stolen, [212]Belit-ili, at
Ea's advice, instructed him to kill Anzu. Initially his assault
was futile, but Sharur relayed advise from Ea to him, which,
when it was carried out allowed him to slay Anzu in a great
onslaught. He recovered the Tablet of Destinies for Ellil.
[213]Nissaba performs a purification ceremony on him and he
receives the following new names and shrines: Duku - 'holy
mound' in Sumerian, Hurabtil - an Elamite god, Shushinak -
patron god of the Elamite city Susa, Lord of the Secret,
Pabilsag - god of the antediluvian city Larak, Nin-Azu - god of
Eshunna, Ishtaran - god of Der, Zababa -warrior god of Kish,
[214]Lugalbanda - [215]Gilgamesh's father, Lugal-Marada -
patron god of Marad, Warrior Tishpak - similar to Nin- Azu,
Warrior of Uruk, Lord of the Boundary-Arrow, Panigara - a
warrior god, and Papsukkal - vizier of the great gods.
Ninsun
- 'the great wild cow', the great queen, [216]Gilgamesh's
mother and [217]Lugalbanda's mate. She is wise, 'knows
everything' and interprets Gilgamesh's dreams. She offers
incense and drink to [218]Shamash and questions his decision to
send Gilgamesh against [219]Humbaba. When doing so, she wears a
circlet on her head and an ornament on her breast. She adopts
[220]Enkidu prior to the quest against Humbaba.
Marduk
- son of [221]Ea and [222]Dumkina. He supplants the other
Babylonian deities to become the central figure of their
pantheon. He is a "King of the Igigi" He often works with and
asks questions of his father. He has fifty names many of which
are those of other deities whose attributes he usurped. He was
of proud form and piercing stare, born mature, powerful, and
perfect and superior. He has four eyes, four ears, and emits
fire from his mouth when he speaks. He is also gifted in magic.
[223]Anu gave him the four winds to play with. When Anu's peace
mission to [224]Tiamat fails, Ea urges him into action. He goes
before [225]Anshar and the divine assembly and declares that he
will defeat Tiamat and lay her head at his feet, but that the
assembly must promise that he should be the one to fix fates
and more or less assume the role of the leader of the pantheon.
Anshar, [226]Lahamu, and Anu find him a shrine and Anu instills
upon him the Anu-power in which, his word decrees fate. He is
proclaimed king and invested with the scepter, throne, and
staff-of- office. He is given an unfaceable weapon, the
flood-weapon. He takes a bow and arrow and mace. He puts
lightning in front of him, marshals his winds, makes a net to
encircle Tiamat, fills his body with flame. He rides his
storm-chariot driven by Slayer, Pitiless, Racer, and Flyer,
poison-toothed, tireless steeds. He had a spell on his lips and
an anti- toxin in his hand. He led the gods to battle.
(P.251-252 Dalley) [227]Qingu's strategy confused him. Tiamat
tried to enspell him and wheedled at him. Marduk reproaches her
and calls her out for single combat. She looses her temper and
they fight. He unleashes his weapons at her, distended her body
with winds, shot her in the belly with an arrow, split her in
two and slit her heart. He defeats the rest of her forces and
retrieves the Tablet of Destinies.
He smashed Tiamat's skull to herald her death and made half of
her body the roof of the sky. He leveled Apsu, measured it and
established numerous shrines for many of the gods. He set up
stands for the gods, constructed the heavens and regulated the
year, giving Shamash some dominion over the months and the
year. He made the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from Tiamat's
eyes and made mountains from her udders. He smashed the weapons
of Tiamat's army and put images of them at the gates to the
underworld. He set up his temple at Esharra and his seat in
Babylon. The gods honored him as king. He put blood and bones
together as and made early man to bear the work of the gods, as
in Atrahasis. For Qingu's part in the war he was made to
provide the blood for the creation of man. He divided the
Anunnaki and placed 300 to guard the sky, and six hundred to
dwell in heaven and earth. He had them create Babylon building
the Esagalia temple and a high ziggurat. Anshar gave him many
new names: 1. Asarluhi, 2. Marduk, 3. The Son, The Majesty of
the Gods, 4. Marukka, 5. Mershakushu, 6. Lugal-dimmer-ankia
(King of heaven and earth), 7. Bel, 8. Nari-lugal-dimmer-ankia,
9. Asarluhi, 10. Namtila, 11. Namru, 12. 'Asare, 13. Asar-alim,
14. Asar-alim-nuna, 15. Tutu, 16. Zi-ukkina, 17. Ziku, 18.
Agaku, 19. Shazu, 20. Zisi, 21. Suhrim, 22. Suhgurim, 23.
Zahrim, 24. Zahgurim, 25. Enbilulu, 26. Epadun, 27. Gugal, 28.
Hegal, 29. Sirsir, 30. Malah, 31. Gil, 32. Gilima, 33. Agilima,
34. Zulum, 35. Mummu, 36. Zulum-ummu, 37. Gizh- numun-ab, 38.
Lugal-ab-dubur, 39. Pagal-guena, 40. Lugal-Durmah, 41. Aranuna,
42. Dumu-duku, 43. Lugal-duku, 44. Lugal-shuanna, 45. Iruga,
46. Irqingu, 47. Kinma, 48. Kinma, 49. E-sizkur, 50. Addu, 51.
Asharu, 52. Neberu, 53. Enkukur. He becomes a firm lawgiver and
judge who, when angered is not stoppable.
Later he becomes somewhat negligent and [228]Erra challenges
him by preparing to attack his people in Babylon. He responds
to the challenge by saying that he already killed most of the
people in the flood and would not do so again. He also states
that no- one would be in control of things if he got off of his
throne to work up a flood, to which Erra volunteers to run
things from Marduk's throne.
Bel (Canaanite [229]Baal)
Cleverest of the clever and sage of the gods, he is the child
of [230]Ea and [231]Dumkina. This name (meaning 'lord') is most
likely referring to [232]Marduk.
Ashur (A-sir, Arusar, A-shar, Assur)
god of Assyria and war. He is a "King of the Igigi"
Symbol: winged disk enclosing upper body, while he shoots an
arrow.
Shullat
- [233]Shamash's servant.
Papsukkal
- vizier of the Great Gods, son of [234]Sin. While [235]Ishtar
was in the Underworld, he became gloomy and informed Sin and
[236]Ea of this plight.
Hanish
- the weather god's servant.
Adad (the Canaanite [237]Hadad, the Sumerian [238]Ishkur, the Hurrian
[239]Teshub, the Canaanite/Egyptian [240]Resheph, Rimmon)
a storm god, [241]Anu's son. He holds a lightning bolt in his
right hand and an axe in his left. He is partially responsible
for the flood. He despairs and will not attack [242]Anzu after
Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from [243]Ellil.
Sacred number: 6
Sacred animal: Bull
Shara
- [244]Anu and [245]Ishtar's son. He despairs and will not
attack [246]Anzu after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies
from [247]Ellil.
Nin-ildu
- the carpenter god. He carries the pure axe of the sun.
Gushkin-banda
- creator of god and man, goldsmith god.
Nin-agal
- 'lord strong-arm' patron god of smiths. He chews copper and
makes tools.
C. The Anunnaki and other chthonic deities and demons
Ereshkigal (Allatu)
- the supreme goddess of the underworld. [248]Nergal is her
consort. She is often considered [249]Ishtar's sister. When
angered, her face grows livid and her lips grow black.
She doesn't know why Ishtar would visit her, but she allows her
in, according to the ancient rites. She instructs [250]Namtar
to release his diseases upon Ishtar. When 'His appearance is
bright' tries to get her to swear an oath, she curses him. She
has Namtar release Ishtar in exchange for [251]Dumuzi.
[252]Anu sends [253]Kakka to her with a message and then sends
Nergal to give her a throne upon which she is to sit and give
judgment. She offers Nergal food, drink, a foot bath, and
entices him with her body. Eventually he succumbs and they
sleep with each other for seven days. She is enraged when he
wishes to leave. She sends Namtar to heaven to request that
Anu, [254]Ellil, and [255]Ea send Nergal to her as one of the
few favors she has ever had. If they do not, she will raise the
dead and they will eat and outnumber the living. Nergal is
brought back. In some versions of the myth, Nergal takes
control of Namtar's attendant demons and grabs Ereshkigal by
the hair. In this position she proposes marriage to him. In
both versions they are married. (See also [256]Sumerian
Ereshkigal and the Hittite [257]Lelwanis)
Belit-tseri
tablet-scribe of the underworld. She kneels before
[258]Ereshkigal.
Namtar(a)
- the Fate-Cutter, [259]Ereshkigal's messenger and vizier, the
herald of death. He commands sixty diseases, which are grouped
by the part of the body which they affect. Offerings to him may
stave off diseases. He takes [260]Ishtar back out of the
Underworld at Ereshkigal's command. He acts as her messenger to
[261]Anu.
Sumuqan
- the cattle god, he resides in the underworld, in
[262]Ereshkigal's court.
Nergal (Erragal, Erra, Engidudu
- 'lord who prowls by night') -, the Unsparing, god of the
underworld, husband of [263]Ereshkigal, lover of [264]Mami. As
Erra he is a hunter god, a god of war and plague. He is
submissive to [265]Ea. He can open the doorposts to the
underworld to allow the passage of a soul.
He achieved his post by refusing to stand before an address of
Namtar. When Ereshkigal called him to be punished, he dragged
her off of her throne by the hair, and threatened to decapitate
her. She offered him the position as her consort and he
accepted.
He is an evil aspect of [266]Shamash. He allows [267]Enkidu's
spirit to visit [268]Gilgamesh at the behest of Ea. He is
sometimes the son of Ea. Prior to his first journey to the
underworld, he builds a chair of fine wood under Ea's
instruction to give to Ereshkigal as a gift from [269]Anu. He
is advised not to take part of the food, drink and
entertainment offered there. He is tempted by Ereshkigal and
eventually succumbs, sleeping with her for seven days. He then
takes his leave, angering her. The gatekeeper lets him out and
he climbs the stairway to heaven. He hides from [270]Namtar in
heaven, but is discovered and returns to the underworld to
marry Ereshkigal. In some versions, on the way back to the
Underworld, he seizes control of Namtar's attendant demons and
grabs Ereshkigal by the hair. In this position she offers
marriage.
He commands the Sebitti, seven warriors who are also the
Pleadies, they aid in his killing of noisy, over-populous
people and animals. He rallies them when he feels the urge for
war, and calls [271]Ishum to light the way. They prefer to be
used in war instead of waiting while Erra kills by disease.
He regards [272]Marduk as having become negligent and prepares
to attack his people in Babylon. He challenges Marduk in
Esagila in Shuanna/Babylon. Marduk responds that he already
killed most of the people in the flood and would not do so
again. He also states that he could not run the flood without
getting off of his throne and letting control slip. Erra
volunteers to take his seat and control things. Marduk takes
his vacation and Erra sets about trying to destroy Babylon.
[273]Ishum intervenes on Babylon's behalf and persuades Erra to
stop, but not before he promises that the other gods will
acknowledge themselves as Erra's servants. (See also
[274]Sumerian Nergal
Irra
- plague god, underling of [275]Nergal
Enmesharra
- Underworld god
Lamashtu
- a dread female demon also known as 'she who erases'.
Nabu
- god of writing and wisdom
Nedu
- the guardian of the first gate of the underworld. (Dalley p.
175, "Nergal and Ereshkigal"). Also known as [276]Neti to the
Sumerians.
Ningizzia
- a guardian of the gate of heaven; a god of the underworld.
Tammuz ([277]Dumuzi, Adonis)
the brother and spouse to [278]Ishtar, or the lover of her
youth. He is a vegetation god. He went into the underworld and
was recovered through the intervention of Ishtar. He is
sometimes the guardian of heaven's gates and sometimes a god of
the underworld. He is friends with [279]Ningizzia. He is
exchanged for Ishtar in the Underworld. He guards the Gate of
[280]Anu with [281]Gizzida.
Belili ([282]Geshtinanna)
- [283]Tammuz/[284]Dumuzi's sister, 'the one who always weeps',
the wife of [285]Ningishzida.
Gizzida (Gishzida)
- son of [286]Ninazu, consort of [287]Belili, doorkeeper of
[288]Anu.
Nissaba (Nisaba)
- cereal grain harvest goddess. Her breast nourishes the
fields. Her womb gives birth to the vegetation and grain. She
has abundant locks of hair. She is also a goddess of writing
and learned knowledge. She performs the purification ceremony
on [289]Ninurta after he has slain [290]Anzu and is given his
additional names and shrines.
Dagan (Ugaritic for 'grain')
- chthonic god of fertility and of the Underworld. He is paired
with [291]Anu as one who acknowledges directives and courses of
action put forth in front of the assembly of the gods. (See
also the Canaanite [292]Dagon)
Birdu
- (means 'pimple') an underworld god. [293]Ellil used him as a
messenger to [294]Ninurta
Sharru
- god of submission
Urshambi
- boatman to [295]Utnapishtim
Ennugi
- canal- controller of the Anunnaki.
Geshtu-e
- 'ear', god whose blood and intelligence are used by [296]Mami
to create man.
D. Demigods, heroes, and monsters:
Adapa (Uan)
- the first of the seven antediluvian sages who were sent by
[297]Ea to deliver the arts of civilization to mankind. He was
from Eridu. He offered food an water to the gods in Eridu. He
went out to catch fish for the temple of Ea and was caught in a
storm. He broke the South Wind's wing and was called to be
punished. Ea advised him to say that he behaved that way on
account of [298]Dumuzi's and [299]Gizzida's absence from the
country. Those gods, who tended [300]Anu's gate, spoke in his
favor to Anu. He was offered the bread and water of eternal
life, but Ea advised against his taking it, lest he end his
life on earth.
Atrahasis and Ut-napishtim,
Like the Sumerian [301]Ziusudra (the Xisuthros of Berossus) or
Noah from the Pentateuch, were the long-lived survivors of the
great flood which wiped out the rest of humanity. In Atrahasis'
case, [302]Ellil had grown tired of the noise that the mass of
humanity was making, and after a series of disasters failed to
eliminate the problem, he had [303]Enki release the floodgates
to drown them out. Since Enki had a hand in creating man, he
wanted to preserve his creation, warned Atrahasis, and had him
build a boat, with which he weathered the flood. He also had
kept his ear open to Enki during the previous disasters and had
been able to listen to Enki's advice on how to avoid their full
effects by making the appropriate offerings to the appropriate
deities. He lived hundreds of years prior to the flood, while
Utnapishtim lives forever after the flood.
Utnapishtim of Shuruppak was the son of Ubaratutu. His flood
has no reason behind it save the stirrings of the hearts of the
Gods. As with Atrahasis, Utnapishtim is warned to build an ark
by [304]Ea. He is also told to abandon riches and possessions
and seek life and to tell the city elders that he is hated by
[305]Enlil and would go to the watery Abyss to live with Ea via
the ark. He loads gold, silver, and the seed of all living
creatures into the ark and all of his craftsmen's children as
well. After Ea advises Enlil on better means to control the
human population, (predators, famine, and plague), Enlil makes
Utnapishtim and his wife immortal, like the gods.
Etana
- the human taken to the sky by an eagle. He was the king of
Kish. [306]Ishtar and the Igigi searched for a king for Kish.
[307]Ellil found a throne for Etana and they declared him the
king. He was pious an continued to pray to [308]Shamash, yet he
had no son. Shamash told him to where to find the eagle with
the cut wings, who would find for him the plant of birth. He
found the eagle, fed it, and taught it to fly again. Not being
able to find the plant, the eagle had Etana mount on his back
and they journeyed to Ishtar, mistress of birth. On flying up
to heaven, Etana grew scared at the height and went down. Then
after some encouraging dreams tried to ascend to heaven on the
eagle again. They succeeded. Etana had a son, Balih.
Lugalbanda
- a warrior-king and, with [309]Ninsun, the progenitor of
[310]Gilgamesh. He is worshipped, being Gilgamesh's ancestor,
by Gilgamesh as a god.
Gilgamesh (possibly Bilgamesh) and Enkidu
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet I"
The son of the warrior-king [311]Lugalbanda and the wise
goddess [312]Ninsun, Gilgamesh built the walls of the city
Uruk, and the Eanna (house of [313]An) temple complex there,
dedicated to [314]Ishtar. He is two-thirds divine and one-third
human. He is tall and a peerless warrior. He is the king and
shepherd of the people of Uruk, but he was very wild, which
upset his people, so they called out to [315]Anu. Anu told
[316]Aruru to make a peer for Gilgamesh, so that they could
fight and be kept occupied, so she created the wild-man Enkidu.
Enkidu terrorizes the countryside, and a Stalker, advised by
his father, informs Gilgamesh. They bring a love-priestess to
bait Enkidu. She sleeps with him, and educates him about
civilization, Gilgamesh and the city. Gilgamesh dreams about
Enkidu and is anxious to meet him. Enkidu comes into the city
Gilgamesh is on his way to deflower the brides in the city's
"bride-house" and the two fight. They are evenly matched and
become friends.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets II - V"
Gilgamesh decides to strengthen his reputation by taking on
[317]Humbaba, [318]Enlil's guardian of the forest. Enkidu
accompanies Gilgamesh and they spend much time in preparation.
Eventually they find the monster and defeat him.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets VI - VIII"
Ishtar offers to become Gilgamesh's lover, but Gilgamesh
insults her, saying that she has had many lovers and has not
been faithful to them. Ishtar asks Anu to send the [319]Bull of
Heaven to punish Gilgamesh, and he does. Gilgamesh and Enkidu
defeat the creature, but Enkidu falls ill and dies, presumably
because the gods are unhappy that he helped kill Humbaba and
the Bull of Heaven.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets IX - XI"
Gilgamesh mourns Enkidu and decides to visit [320]Utnapishtim,
the only human who does not die. He goes to the mountains of
Mashu and passes by the guardian scorpion-demons into the
darkness. It becomes light as he enters the Garden of the Gods
and he finds [321]Siduri the Barmaid, to whom he relates his
quest. She sends him to cross the waters of death and he
confronts the boatman, Urshanabi. They cross and Gilgamesh
speaks with Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim recounts the tale of the
flood and challenges Gilgamesh to remain awake for six days and
seven nights. He fails, but Utnapishtim's wife urges him to
reveal to Gilgamesh a rejuvinative plant. Gilgamesh takes it,
but looses it to a serpent before returning to Uruk.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet XII"
Another tablet of the Babylonian Gilgamesh story exists, which
is similar to the [322]Sumerian version of the tale. Enkidu
volunteers to enter the underworld to recover Gilgamesh's pukku
and mikku (drum and throwing stick). Gilgamesh warns him of the
proper etiquette for the underworld, lest Enkidu be kept there.
Enkidu prepares to enter the underworld, and is dressed,
scented and bade good-bye. The Earth seizes him and Gilgamesh
weeps. He pleads for Enkidu's sake to Enlil, [323]Sin, and
finally to [324]Ea. Ea tells [325]Nergal to let Enkidu's ghost
escape the underworld and tell Gilgamesh about it. He tells
Gilgamesh of the dead which he has seen there, of those who are
cared for and those who aren't, indicating the sort of judgment
and ritual associated with the afterlife and death.
Humbaba (Huwawa)
- this monster was appointed by [326]Ellil to guard the cedar
forest, which is in fact one large tree, the home of the gods,
and terrify mankind. 'His shout is the storm-flood, his mouth,
fire, his breath is death.' (Gardner & Maier p. 105) He has
seven cloaks with which to arm himself. There is a gate and a
path in the cedar mountain for Humbaba to walk on.
[327]Gilgamesh and Enkidu attack. Humbaba pleads for mercy,
Enkidu argues against mercy, and Enkidu and Gilgamesh
decapitate him. See also the Sumerian [328]Huwawa.
The Bull of Heaven
- this creature was created by [329]Anu to kill [330]Gilgamesh
at [331]Ishtar's behest. At its snorting, a hole opened up and
200 men fell into it. When it fights Enkidu and Gilgamesh, it
throws spittle and excrement at them. It is killed and set as
an offering to [332]Shamash.
Anzu
- a demonic being with lion paws and face and eagle talons and
wings. It was born on the mountain Hehe. Its beak is like a
saw, its hide as eleven coats of mail. It was very powerful.
[333]Ellil appointed him to guard his bath chamber. He envied
the Ellil-power inherent in Ellil's Tablet of Destinies and
stole it while Ellil was bathing. With the Tablet of Destinies,
anything he puts into words becomes reality. He takes
advandtage of this by causing [334]Ninurta's arrows to never
reach their target. However, once [335]Ea's advice reached
Ninurta, Anzu was slain by the hero's onslaught.
aqrabuamelu (girtablilu)
- scorpion-man, the guardians of the gates of the underworld.
Their "terror is awesome" and their "glance is death". They
guard the passage of [336]Shamash. They appraise [337]Gilgamesh
and speak with him.
Definitions:
Anunnaki
- gods (mostly of the earth). The sky Anunnaki set the Igigi to
digging out the rivers
Igigi
- gods (mostly of the heavens) They are given the task of
digging riverbeds by the Anunnaki. They rebelled against
[338]Ellil.
Sebitti
- the seven warrior gods led by [339]Erra; in the sky they are
the Pleadies. They were children of [340]Anu and the
[341]Earth-mother. Anu gave them fearsome and lethal destinies
and put them under Erra's command. They prefer to exercise
there skills instead of letting Erra stay in the cities with
his diseases.
Utukki - demons
Muttabriqu - Flashes of Lightning
Sarabda - Bailiff
Rabishu - Croucher
Tirid - Expulsion
Idiptu - Wind
Bennu - Fits
Sidana - Staggers
Miqit - Stroke
Bel Uri - Lord of the Roof
Umma - Feverhot
Libu - Scab
gallu-demons - can frequently alter their form.
umu-demons - fiercely bare their teeth.
IV. What about the Underworld and Heaven and all that?
For a more general discussion of this, take a look at the
[342]Underworld and [343]Cosmology sections in the [344]Sumerian FAQ,
for the particulars, see below.
The [345]Igigi and the [346]Anunnaki met in heaven in Ubshu-ukkinakku,
the divine assembly hall. The [347]Gilgamesh epic has the gods
dwelling in the cedar mountain. They had their parakku, throne-bases,
there. It was an enormous tree at the cedar forest and was guarded by
[348]Humbaba. There is a stairway up to heaven from the underworld.
As for the underworld Kurnugi (Sumerian for 'land of no return'). It
is presided over by [349]Ereshkigal and [350]Nergal. Within the house
of Irkalla (Nergal), the house of darkness, the house of Ashes, no one
ever exits. "They live on dust, their food is mud; their clothes are
like birds' clothes, a garment of wings, and they see no light, living
in blackness." It is full of dust and mighty kings serve others food.
In Ereshkigal's court, heroes and priests reside, as well as
[351]Sumuqan and [352]Belit-tseri. The scorpion-people guard the gates
in the mountain to the underworld which [353]Shamash uses to enter and
exit. There are seven gates, through which one must pass. At each
gate, an adornment or article of clothing must be removed. The gates
(gatekeepers?) are named: [354]Nedu, (En)kishar, Endashurimma,
(E)nuralla, Endukuga/Nerubanda, Endushuba/Eundukuga, and Ennugigi.
Beyond the gates are twelve double doors, wherein it is dark.
[355]Siduri waits there by the waters of death, beyond which, is the
Land of the Living, where [356]Utnapishtim and his wife dwell. Shamash
and Utnapishtim's boatman, Urshanbi, can cross the waters. Egalginga,
the everlasting palace, is a place where [357]Ishtar was held.
V. Hey! I read that Cthulhu is really some Babylonian or Sumerian god, how come
he's not there under Kutu?
I have yet to find any secondary (or for that matter primary) source
which lists Kutu as a Mesopotamian deity, or for that matter lists any
name resembling Cthulhu at all. However, having been given a pointer
by DanNorder at aol.com, I have confirmed that Kutha or Cutch was the
cult city of [358]Nergal, the Akkadian god of plagues and the
underworld (see above) and that 'lu' is the Sumerian word for man. So,
Kuthalu would mean Kutha-man which could conceivably refer to Nergal.
As far as I can tell it could mean Joe the Butcher or any of his
neighbors who happen to live in Kutha just as easily. Nergal, of
course bears little resemblance to Lovecraft's Cthulhu beyond the fact
that both can be considered underworld powers. Those interested in
further discussion about this might wish to [359]contact Dan at the
above address and they may wish to read alt.horror.cthulhu as well.
VI. So, in AD&D, [360]Tiamat is this five-headed evil dragon, but they got her
from the _Enuma Elish_, right? What about her counterpart, Bahamut?
Bahamut, according to Edgerton Sykes' _Who's Who of Non-Classical
Mythology_, is "The enormous fish on which stands Kujara, the giant
bull, whose back supports a rock of ruby, on the top of which stands
an angel on whose shoulders rests the earth, according to Islamic
myth. Our word Behemoth is of the same origin." (Sykes, p. 28)
[Note: Sykes's use of the phrase "Islamic myth" is misleading as this
bit of cosmology is not considered Islamic doctrine. Bahamut is
pre-Islamic, most likely Arabic. I don't have a second source for
Kujara.]
Behemoth then, is usually the male counterpart to Leviathan, and is a
great beast that roams on land. He is sometimes equated with a
hippopotamus, and is alternately listed in the Old Testament as a
creature on the side of God and as one over whom God has or will
triumph over.
VII. Where did you get this info and where can I find out more?
Well this FAQ is primarily derived from the following works:
* Barraclough, Geoffrey (ed.) _The Times Consise Atlas of World
History_, Hammond Inc., Maplewood, New Jersey, 1982.
* Dalley, Stephanie _Myths from Mesopotamia_, Oxford University
Press, New York, 1991. This inexpensive volume served as the bible
for much of this FAQ. It contains translations of the major
Akkadian language myths with footnotes, brief introductions, and a
glossary.
* Gardner, John & Maier, John _Gilgamesh: Translated from the
Sin-Leqi-Unninni Version_, Vintage Books, Random House, New York,
1984. A column by column translation with notes and commentary
following each column, by the late author of _Grendel_.
* Hooke, S. H., _Babylonian and Assyrian Religion_, University of
Oklahoma Press, Norman Oklahoma, 1963.
* Kinnier Wilson, J. V., _The Rebel Lands : an Investigation Into
the Origins of Early Mesopotamian Mythology_, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1979.
* McCall, Henrietta, _Mesopotamian Myths_ University of Texas Press,
Austin, 1990. A summary account of Dalley's book with nice
pictures more cultural context.
* Oppenheim, A. Leo, _Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead
Civilization_, Chicato, The University of Chicago Press, 1977.
This is the source for the history and culture of the Babylonians
and Assyrians for the interested lay-person.
* _The New American Bible_, Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York,
1970.
In addition the following books have occasionally proven helpful:
* Carlyon, Richard, _A Guide to the Gods_, Quill, William Morrow,
New York, 1981.
* Hooke, S. H. _Middle Eastern Mythology_, Penguin Books, New York,
1963. This work covers Sumerian, Babylonian, Canaanite/Ugaritic,
Hittite, and Hebrew mythologic material in brief and with
comparisons.
* Jacobsen, Thorkild, _The Treasures of Darkness_, Yale University
Press, New Haven, 1976. A good alternative to Kramer, Jacobsen
explores Mesopotamian religious development from early Sumerian
times through the Babylonian Enuma Elish. Most of the book winds
up being on the Sumerians.
* Pritchard, James B., _Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the
Old Testament, with Suppliment_, Princeton University Press,
Princeton, 1969.
* Sykes, Edgerton, _Who's Who in Non-Classical Mythology_, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1993.
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References
1. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren
2. mailto:cbsiren at hopper.unh.edu
3. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.1
4. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.2
5. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.3
6. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.3.1
7. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.3.2
8. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.3.3
9. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.3.4
10. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.4
11. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.5
12. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.6
13. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#a1.7
14. http://www.ntua.gr/b5/History.Babylonia
15. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html#An
16. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Anu
17. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html#Ninhursag
18. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Aruru
19. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html#Enlil
20. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Ellil
21. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html#Enki
22. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Ea
23. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html#Nanna
24. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Sin
25. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html#Inanna
26. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Ishtar
27. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html#Utu
28. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Shamash
29. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html#Ninlil
30. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Lahmu
31. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Lahamu
32. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Anshar
33. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Kishar
34. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Mummu
35. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Tiamat
36. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Ea
37. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Lahmu
38. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Lahamu
39. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Anshar
40. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Kishar
41. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Apsu
42. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Mummu
43. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Qinqu
44. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Marduk
45. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Tiamat
46. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Apsu
47. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Kappa
48. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Anshar
49. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Marduk
50. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Anu
51. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Tiamat
52. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Apsu"
53. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Kishar
54. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Ashur
55. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Ea
56. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Marduk
57. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Kappa
58. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Lahmu
59. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Lahamu
60. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Anu
61. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Tiamat
62. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Apsu
63. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Anshar
64. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Kishar
65. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Ishtar
66. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Ea
67. file://localhost/www/sat/files/assyrbabyl-faq.htm#Adapa>Adapa to account for breaking the wing of the South Wind, and offers him the food and drink of eternal life after Lahmu,