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Published in Ind. J. of History of Science, 39,1, (2004) pp.11-49. INSA,
N.Delhi

Profile of a Natural Disaster in Ancient Sanskrit Literature

R. N. Iyengar Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering
(e.mail:rni at civil.iisc.ernet.in; aareni at yahoo.com)  Indian Institute of
Science Bangalore 560012

Abstract
Prabhsa-ketra-mhtmya, which forms a part of Sknda Pura, contains
interesting information about ancient natural disasters affecting the
Kutch-Mt.Abu region of India.  In this paper, selected readings of the
Sanskrit text are presented with brief translations.  A comparison with
similar information contained in Mahbhrata, Rmyaa and gveda is also
presented to interpret the Puric text in a possible historical
perspective.  It is inferred that the above texts taken together, have
references to brightening of a star in the Pleiades cluster and also to
ground impact due to falling objects, presumably fragments of an asteroid.

Key words 
Sknda Pura, Ancient natural disasters, Pleiades, Ground impact, northwest
India.

Profile of a Natural Disaster in Ancient Sanskrit Literature

R. N. Iyengar Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of
Science Bangalore 560012

Introduction 

Sanskrit literature of ancient and medieval India is rich in information
related to earth sciences.  Books referred as Sthala-pura or Ketra-mhtmya
offer details of places that have been of historical and religious
importance.  It is observed that the contents of these writings cannot be
taken as accurate descriptions of the region or locale considered.  
However, they may provide information that would be of interest to
scientists, engineers and archaeologists.  While searching for leads on
earthquakes and disasters in ancient India, the present author came across
the Prabhsa-khada (Prabhsa module) of Sknda-pura.  This forms the last
part of the Pura as available in the South Indian versions.  This part of
the pura actually contains four books, namely, Prabhsa-ketra mhtmya,
Vastrpatha-ketra-mhtmya, Arbuda-khada and Dvrak-mhtmya.  Here, the
interest is mainly in the first book, which itself is in two parts.  
Prabhsa-ketra mhtmya (abbreviated as PK) is implied to be concerned with
the region around Prabhsa. Gujarat region is well known to be seismically
active and hence susceptible to earthquakes and tsunamis (sea waves due to
earthquakes) along the coast.  What is found in PK is an astounding
narration of a phenomenon, which can only be interpreted as a somewhat
fanciful description of a natural disaster that should have visited the
Gujarat region in the remote past.  An equally interesting event described
is the burning of river Sarasvat, which obviously is an ancient version of
how the once bountiful river dried up leading to disastrous consequences.  
The approach in the present paper is as follows.  First, PK is reviewed in
detail.  This is followed by brief reviews of Mahbhrata (MB), Rmyaa and
gveda, to see how far the events of PK can be matched with the
corresponding events of earlier texts. Prabhsa in popular parlance is
currently identified with the famous pilgrim center Somantha (20.9oN 70.5o
E) on the west coast of the Sourashtra region. However, the present study
indicates that the original Prabhsa was not with Somantha, but was
probably located around (23.5oN 71.5o E), nearer to the Kutch region.  
Further, a natural event that finds mention consistently in several texts
is conjectured to be a nova or brightening of a star in the star cluster
of Kttik (Pleiades).

Skanda-pura The Pura literature in Sanskrit is voluminous describing what
is popularly taken to be mythology linked with Hindu religious practices.  
Historically Puras are enumerated as eighteen in number.  It would appear
that all the Puras have evolved from a smaller nucleus to their present
size.  Sknda-pura as available now is the largest of the eighteen Puras
with slightly more than 84,000 verses.  In line with other Puras, Sknda is
also attributed to the authorship of Ka Dvaipyana or Veda-Vysa, the
legendary composer of Mahbhrata.  However, even a casual reading of the
text presently available point out that much material should have been
added by different authors at different times. It is known that the
Nepalese version of Sknda-pura does not contain Prabhsa-khaa1. Hence, PK
can be treated as an independent traditional text, in Sanskrit.  Alberuni
who accompanied Mahamud of Ghazni (10-11 cent. AD)  in the plunder of
Somanatha describes the place in his book on India2.  He also enumerates
all the Puranas including Sknda.  PK contains description of consecration
of a deity at Somantha in puraic style, but does not even remotely refer
to a foreign invasion. Thus, the composition of PK may be assigned to a
period earlier than at least ninth century AD.  The style of PK is simple
but old fashioned.  It is in the form of a conversation between the divine
couple iva and Prvat. Several other personages are brought in to narrate a
story that is at times inconsistent, and lacking in a sense of chronology,
but nevertheless amply describing a natural disaster of monumental
proportions. The narration is in tune with the ancient practice of
personifying natural forces and dramatizing the phenomenon.  A typical
example of this approach from Mahbhrata may be cited here.  Balarma, elder
brother of Ka does not take part in the epic war. Instead, he goes on a
pilgrimage along the course of river Sarasvat. In his northward journey,
he comes to a certain place and wonders why the west flowing river should
have suddenly turned eastwards.  The reason stated in the text is that
when some sages on the eastern part of the land performed a sacrifice,
Sarasvat (personified as a goddess) flowed eastward to fulfill the wishes
of her devoted sages, who liked to bathe in the holy river.  Such a
mythological modeling is a distinct possibility for a natural structure,
since we see that river atadru (literally one who flows in hundred ways)
presently called Sutlej, exhibits a steep eastward bend near Ropar (30oN,
76oE). With this type of model in the background, a realistic reading of
PK, shorn of all religious interpretations, is presented here.  The
Sanskrit text followed is the one brought out in Kannada script by the
Mysore Palace3.  This edition also contains a near literal Kannada
translation, which is not free from errors.  In the present rendering of
the pura, the original Sanskrit text is followed closely. All the text
specifically needed for the present discussion is reproduced here as per
the above edition.  A working translation that is not literal, but which
highlights the implied meaning, is provided below the text.

Prabhsa Region 

The description of the Prabhsa region starts in the fourth chapter of the
first part of PK, in the form of a conversation between iva and Prvat.

tasya pramam vakymi sarva-sm-samanvitam | 
ketram tu trividham proktam tatte vakymyanukramt || 
ketram pham garbhagham prabhsasya prakrtate | 
yathkramam phalam tasya koti-kotiguam smtam || 
ketram tu prathamam proktam tacca dvdaa-yojanam | 
pancayojana-mnena ketra-pham prakrtitam || 
garbhaghañca gavytih karik s mama priy | 
ketra-smm pravakymi su devi yathkramam || 
yma-vysatascaiva di-madhynta-samsthitam | 
prve taptodaka-svm pacime mdhavah smta || 
dakie sgara tdvat bhadr nadyuttare mat | 
evam sm-samyuktam ketram dvdaa-yojanam || 

etat prbhsikam ketram sarva-ptaka-nanam | 
tanmadhye phik prokta pañca-yojana-vistt || 
nyankumatypareaiva vajriy prvatastath | 
mhevary dakiata samudrasyottarastath || 
yama-vysatacaiva pañca-yojana-vistaram | 
pham etat samkhytham atho garbha-gham su ||   
dakiottarto yvat samudrt kauravevar | 
prva-pacimato yvat gomukhcca vamedhikam ||  (4.11-4.20) 

Prabhsa is divided into three parts namely, Ketra (region), Pha (podium or
seat) and Garbha-gha (sanctum sanctorum).  The Ketra is bounded in the
east by Taptodaka, in the west by Mdhava, in the north by river Bhadr and
in the south by the ocean.

The extent of the Ketra is twelve yojanas.  In the centre of the Ketra is
the Pitha, five yojanas in both length and breadth.  This is to the west
of river Nyañkumati, to the east of river Vajri, to the north of the sea
and to the south of river Mahevari. The Garbha Gha is inside the Pha.  
Its extent is from the sea in the south to Kauravevari in the north; to
the east is Gomukha and to the west is vamedhika.

Taptodaka or Tapta-toya is identifiable as the hot water spring at (21.10
N 71.050 E) as per the maps of Geological Survey of India4. Yojana is a
length measure approximately equal to six miles or 9.6 kilometers5. The
text proceeds in a fashion, which combines geographical information with
several religious symbols supposedly well known to the readers or
listeners of the Pura.  A close link of the place with one or more fires
of marine origin is conspicuous from the beginning.

yosau klgni-rudrastu procyate veda-vdibhi | 
soyam bhairava-nmn tu prabhse sam-vyavasthita ||    
agnin yatra taptam tu divybdhnm caturyugam | 
megha-vhana-kalpe tu tatra ligam babhva ha ||               
agni-mheti vedokta-prabhva sura-sundar | 
klgni-rudra-nm ca devaih sarvaih udhtam || 
agni-ineti devei nma-tritayam ucyate |                 (4.68, 4.71-73) 

One, who is called Klgni-rudra, by those following the Vedas, is in
Prabhsa by the name Bhairava.  When Agni (Fire) burnt continuously for a
length of four yugas in the Indra Kalpa a linga came into existence there.  
This linga has three names, Agnimha, Klgni-rudra and Agni-na.

The word linga means symbol that can signify gender. Thus, in popular
parlance, it refers to phallus of iva. Reference to Veda, is perhaps for
the famous Rudra Skta of Yajurveda.  In the seventh chapter, the location
of Prabhsa is again repeated with some further information on the position
of the linga.  The location of the linga is surmised to be at the center
of the garbha-gha explained previously.

vrum diam ritya sgarasya ca sannidhau | 
ktasmarasya parato dhanvantara-ata-traye || 
lingam mah-prabhvan tu svayam-bhtam vyavasthitam | 
tatra sannihito deva ankara paramevara || 
etasmin antare devi someasya sampata | 
caturdae vibhge tu dhanuam ca ata-dvayam || 
samantn-maalkram karik s mama priy |     (7.65-7.68) 

Towards the west, near the sea at a distance of 300 bows (1bow~ 2 meters)
due west of Ktasmara mount, the great self-created linga exists. There
stays Lord iva.  In between, near to Somantha (linga) there is a 200-bow
diameter circular opening (karika)  with fourteen divisions. The fiery
origin of the linga is indicated by the nomenclature tejolinga (ch.  
7.58) and later in chapter eight in the statements,

tacca lingam pur kalpe sapta-ptla bhedhakam | 
kathitam koti-sryasya pralaynala-sannibham || 
tena klgni-rudreti proktam somevara pur |  (8.28-8.29) 

That Somevara linga in the previous epochs had broken out from the depth
of the earth, it was bright like one crore suns and was burning like the
fire during the dissolution of the world (Pralaya).  Hence, Somevara is
referred to as Klgni-rudra.

In the eleventh chapter, there is a simple but clear description of the
boundaries of the Indian subcontinent.  Some of these statements are
similar to what appears in books such as the Bhat-Samhita of Varha Mihira
(5-6 cent AD)6.

dakiparato yasya prvea ca mahodadhi | 
himavn uttaresya krmukasya yath gua || 
tadetat bhratam varam sarva-bjam varnane |      
ea krmo maya khyto bhrate bhagavniha |               
tasya naita pde tu saurra iti viruta | 
tasya yo navamo bhga sgarsya ca sannidhau | 
prabhsa iti vikhyto mama devi priya sad ||          (11. 13-14, 28, 37-38) 

The landmass enclosed by the great sea in the south, west and east and by
the Himlays in the shape of a bowstring in the north, is Bhrata-vara.  
Bhrata is equated with a tortoise (Viu as Krma).  In the southwest
direction of this landmass is Saurra.  The ninth part of this, near the
ocean is called Prabhsa.

Here, the text once again gives the dimensions of the Prabhsa region as
previously.  This chapter is very long but surprisingly, neither Somantha
nor the hot springs are mentioned.  Next, the text develops a connection
between Sun and Prabhsa,

vivakarm tu anujñta ka-dvpe vivasvat| 
bhmim ropya tatteja tanya upacakrame || 
bhramat khalu devei sacandra-graha-trakam | 
adhogatim mahbhge babhuvkiptam-kulam || 
vikipta-salil sarve babhvuca tath nad | 
vyabhidyanta tath ail ra-snu-nibandhan ||  (11.141, 143, 145) 

Vivakarma placed the heat of Sun on earth, in a place called saka-dvipa
and filed him.  The spinning of Sun displaced the moon and the planets.  
The oceans got disturbed and the mountains broke down.

This is perhaps a speculation on the part of PK about creation, in tune
with what a Pura is supposed to contain.  The interesting point is that
the text says a part of Sun fell at Prabhsa.  The text also identifies
that out of the first fifteen parts of Sun, the discuss of Viu, the
trident of iva, the spear of Skanda, the weapons of all the gods and
demons were formed. (11.195-205).  This is an allusion to the celestial
origin of some of the later religious symbols. The text is not clear on
whether ka-dvipa is same as Prabhsa. However, a definite connection
between the two places is mentioned in Chapter 13.

ka-dvpe mahdevi bhramiasya tad rave | 
varm tu atam sgram takyame vibhvasau || 
yaddya-bhgajam teja tat prabhse apatat priye | 
ptitam tatra tat tejah sthalkram vyajyata ||               (13.5,6) 

While at aka-dvpa, Vivakarma worked on Sun, for hundred years reducing his
heat.  The first part, which fell at Prabhsa took the shape of the land.

There is a speculation on when this incident could have taken place.  
There is also a description of how large an area of the region was covered
with dust, produced by the event.  A sample of such description is

yad svrocio devi dvityo abht manu pur | 
tasmin kle avatro' sau devastatra divkara || 
etasminnantare devi sauram teja prasarpitam | 
tena pvitryam ntam ketram dvdaa-yojanam ||    
srya-dakia-naitye ptla-vivaram priye | 
mandeh rkas yatra tath lakatakat || 
sryasya tejas dagdh ptlam agaman pur | 
kalau tad dvramevsti na ptala-gati priye ||      (13.11, 17, 32, 33) 

Sun descended at the time of Svrocia Manu (~1665 million years B.P).  The
dust created by Sun's energy spread for five yojanas, from Mahevari River
in the north.  In the east-west direction, it spread for five yojanas,
from Nyakumathi River to Ktasmara mount.  The light spread much farther.
The region acquired sanctity for twelve yojanas by this light. Near that
place of Sun, in the southwest direction, there is a deep opening in the
ground.  This is where in ancient times the demons Mandeh and lakatankata,
went underground being burnt by Sun.  Now in Kaliyuga, this opening can
only be seen, but it is not possible to go underground there.

The necessity of invoking such long periods of several million years is
not explained.  Both the above episodes are perhaps reminiscences of a
meteorite impact.  The underground opening is described in Chapter 16
further in twenty-seven verses.

ptla-vivarasypi mhtmyam u smpratam | 
prva-pam mahdevi brahma vivakarma || 
tamobhave samutpanne jt tatraiva rkas | 
sryasya dveia sarve hi asakhyt mahbal || 
te tu dv mahtmnam samudyantam divkaram | 
te dhmra-pramukh sarve jahasuh sryamañjas || 
nipetu ambara-bhra ka-puy iva grah | 
rkasai veito dhmra nipatan uubhe ambart || 
ardha-pakvam yath tla-phalam kapibhirvtam | 
yadcchaya nipetuste yantra-mukt yathopal || 
tato vyu-vat bhra bhitv bhmim rastalam | 
jagmu te ketramsdya prabhsam varavarin ||     (16.1-3, 16.10-12) 

When Vivakarma produced dark matter, several demons that were enemies of
Sun came into existence.  Dhmra (smoky) and other such demons laughed at
the rising Sun and made fun of him.  Then Sun looked at them angrily and
the demons tumbled down to earth like planets devoid of their merits.  
Dhmra, encircled by other demons shone, while falling from the sky, like a
half-ripe palm fruit surrounded by monkeys.  They all fell down like
stones released by chance from a machine and carried by wind reached
Prabhsa and broke the earth to go underground.

yatra crkasthalao deva sarvasiddhi-pradyaka | 
tat-snnidhya-stitham devi ptla-vivaram mahat || 
anyni kotia santi tni luptni bhmini | 
ktasmart samrabhya yvad-arka-sthalo ravi ||        
iti sakepata proktam arkasthala-mahodayam | 
rkasm ca samptt abhcca vivaram yath || 
evam tu prakaam tatra dyate adypi bhmin | 
r-mukham nma tat dvram rakyate mtbhi priye ||   (16.13,14; 21,22) 

The big underground opening is near Arkasthala.  From Ktasmara upto
Arkasthala there were innumerable other holes in the ground.  Now those
are all closed.  The birth of Arkasthala (Sun-land) has been briefly
explained along with the underground openings caused due to the impact
(samptt) of the demons.  Only one opening by name r-mukha, protected by
Sunand is visible now, whereas others have vanished.

The above text is clearly a description of one or more heavenly objects
hitting the then seacoast or the ground near Prabhsa.  The comparison
given, the name of the demon as smoky (Dhmra) and the explanation that the
demons fell from the sky like stones indicates this to be a wide spread
phenomenon.  The story of the descent of Sun, in the 13th chapter and the
above ground impact due to stones may be memories of ancient disasters,
which were carried by different groups of people in different ways, by
personifying the natural forces and their effects. The text next explains
how the place got another name Somantha (Moon's master).  This story
appears to be purely imaginary lacking in physical significance and hence
not presented here. However, Alberuni reports a justification, which is
reasonable7. From the 29th chapter onwards there are instructions to
visitors on what they have to see and do at Prabhsa. Further PK presents a
story linked with the receding of the sea and the resulting calamity.
Briefly the text is,

vara paca tasyyam pur datto yath dvijai | 
evam apta samudrastai brhmaai varavarin | 
tato vara-sahasram tu hyaspya sambabhva ha ||   (29.25, 58) 

This sea has been both cursed and blessed by Brhmas. Being cursed by them,
this sea remained untouchable for thousand years.

The reason for the curse is described in a lengthy story (Ch.29.32-58)
that once the Brahmanas went to the sea, desperately seeking food.  They
were given sumptuous food in the form of rice but fish-meat was concealed
inside. The Brhmas felt cheated, since by eating prohibited food they lost
their powers of going with Devas and Gandharvas in the sky.  The story
goes further that, at the intercession of devas and Brahma, the local
Brhmas agreed to retract the curse and make the sea fit for bathing. This
story obviously refers to a famine or failure of crops forcing people to
resort to seafood on large scale.  There is also a reference to recession
of the sea for a long time followed by a rise in the sea level.  This
phenomenon was connected with vavgni as it is said,

tasya madhye mahsram vavam yatra vai mukham | 
r-somet dakiato dhanvantara-atvadhi | 
uttart mnast prvam yvadeva ktasmaram ||           (29.96,97) 

In the centre of this (Agni-trtha) situated to the south of Somevara, to
the east of Mnasa (lake) and upto Ktasmara mount is the 100 bow-wide face
of Vdava.

The sequence of events starting with a meteoritic impact, receding of the
sea, the learned among the community, under compulsion to eat fish, and
the marine fire that is equated with klgni-rudra (angry fire of Time) of
the vedas indicate a wide spread calamity.  There is no description of
what may be considered a volcanic eruption.  However, the text refers to
(vavgni) a fire in the form of a horse without thighs, linked with River
Sarasvat. This starts in chapter 32, with the story of sage Dadhci living
on the banks of Candrabhga (presently Chenab) river. The sage sacrifices
himself so that Indra and other gods could get their armaments made from
his bones.  Pippalda, son of Dadhci learns about this from his mother and
does penance so that he could take revenge on the gods for whose sake his
father had to die.  From his left thigh comes Aurva or Vavgni, that is, a
fire with the face of a horse without thighs.  Vava is ordered by Pippalda
to eat away the gods one by one.  However, Viu intervenes on behalf of the
gods to convince Vava that he should first consume water, since water was
the first to be created among the gods.  Vava agrees to this but says he
will go to the ocean only by holding the hand of a maiden. Viu asks Gag
and other rivers to carry the fire to the ocean.  They express their
inability since the fire is too terrible to be carried by them.  Finally,
River Sarasvat agrees to carry the fire with the permission of her father
Brahma (Creator) after a lengthy conversation between them. The gist of
their discussion is, Sarasvati is advised to stay underground, and is
asked to turn east and show up whenever she feels tired.  All such places
would be declared holy and fit to be recognized as trthas.  This chapter
also describes briefly the course of the river.

himavantam girim prpya plakttatra vinirgat | 
avatr dhar-phe matsya-kacchapa-sankul || 
puya-toya-vah devi styamn dvi-jtibhi | 
vavam vahnim dya hayavegena nihst || 
bhitv vegt dhar-pham pravi    stha mahtalam | 
yad yad abhavacchrnt dahyate vavgnina || 
tad tad martya-loke yti pratyakatm nad | 
tatastu jyate prc santapt vavena tu | 
tato vai yni trthni krtitni purtanai || 
khdirmodam sdya tatra s vkya sgaram | 
gantum pravtt tam vahnim dya sura-sundar || 
nirha-bhram tmnam devdet vicintya s | 
prah sumanastasmt pravtt dakimukh ||     (33.41,43-45, 47-48) 

Having reached Himlaya she started from Plaka and descended to the earth
with fish and tortoise.  Even as the Brhmaas were praising her, she
carried Vavgni, and flowed with the speed of a horse.  Whenever she got
tired due to the burning, she broke open the ground and came up.  At such
places, she turned eastwards and as told by the ancients those places
became Trthas (holy waters or lakes).  When she arrived at Khdirmoda
(grove of khdira or acacia catechu trees) and saw the sea, she felt happy
that she is carrying a burden as ordered by God.  Being contented, she
started flowing southwards.

Khdiramoda, perhaps refers to the region around the present day Khadir
island (23.87oN,70.25 oE) in Kutch. At this stage, PK describes that
Sarasvati divided into five streams called, Hari, Vajri, Nyaku, Kapil and
Sarasvat, which have been associated with Prabhsa in an earlier Chapter.
Further, Sarasvati approaches a mountain by name Ktasmara. Here follows a
poetic description of the mountain with its flora and fauna. The hill is
peronified as the king of mountains who first woos; but after being
rejected, forces Sarasvati to marry him.  To this Sarasvati responds,

yadi mm tvam pariaye rudantm ekakm tath | 
gha vavam haste yvat snnam karomyaham || 
evamukte sa jagrha tam nagendropavarjitam | 
ktasmara tat-samspart kat bhasmatvam gata || 
tata prabhti te tasya p mdutm gat | 
gha-deva-kulrthya ghyante ilpibi saha || 
dagdhv ktasmaram devi punardya vavam | 
samudrasya sampe s sthit ha-tanruh ||                  (33.88-91) 

`If you like to marry me, one who is weeping and alone, then hold this
fire in your hand till I bathe'.  As soon as Ktasmara held the fire, he
was reduced to ashes.  From then onwards, the stones of that mount became
soft and artisans started using them for building temples and houses.  
After burning Ktasmara hill, Sarasvat carried Vava further to the sea.

The description of the spout through which the river supposedly vanished
eventually is also figuratively described.  Vava being pleased with
Sarasvat, asks her to seek a boon from him.  She in turn thinks of Viu for
a suggestion.

tatastena hdisthena prokt dev sarasvat | 
prrthanyo varo bhadre sc-vaktratvam dart || 
tatastvabhihito devy yadi me tvam varaprada | 
tata sc-mukho bhtv tvam pibpo mahbala || 
evam uktena tat tena sc-vedha-samam ktam | 
ghaik-praam yadvat papau tad-vadanam jalam ||      (33.99-101) 

Then, she was advised by Viu, staying in her heart, "Dear Sarasvati, ask
him to become needle faced".  Accordingly, as per her request, Vava
acquired a funnel like neck as in an hour-clock, to drink water.

The next chapter of PK is called Sarasvati-avatra-mahim-varanam, which,
means description of the purpose of the avatra (descent) of Sarasvati.  
The vavgni episode with some more details is again repeated.

tam samarpya tata tasmin nad bhtv sarasvat | 
pravi sgaram dev nradevara-mrgata || 
tatoSbdhim sampravi s pañca-srot mahnad | 
svarpeaiva s puy puna puyatamSbhavat || 
prabhsa-ketra-samparkt samudrasya ca sagamt | 
sgaroSpi samsdya sarasvatystu vavam | 
nirdhano dhanamiva prpyaScintayat kva kipmyaham || 
sa tenaiva karasthena dpyamnena sgara | 
vahnin ikharasthena bhti merurivSpara ||        
tasyocchvasnilodbhtam tat-toyam sgardbahi | 
nirmarydeva yuvati itacetaca dhvati || 
atha kle gate devi uyatyambu anai anai |          (34.15-19, 26,27) 

Then having offered (vavgni) to the sea, Sarasvati as a river entered the
ocean through Nradevara.  The river, dividing itself into five, flowed
into the ocean.  She who was already holy became the holiest, due to her
contact with Prabhsa and the ocean.  The ocean having got vavgni from
Sarasvati, like a pauper getting money, did not know where to keep him.  
With fire in his hand, the ocean lit up like another Mt.Meru with fire at
its peak. Due to the gases emanating from the sea (ucchvsa-anila udbhtam),
the waters overflowed and traveled in all directions, like a maiden
without discipline.  After some time, the waters slowly started drying up.

In this chapter it is mentioned, that after the fire started burning,
initially the sea exceeded in its boundaries but later the coast started
receding.  The text goes on to say that, at the request of the sea, the
waters were restored, after some time.  This is similar to the statement
in a previous place, that the sea at Prabhsa once receded and once
exceeded its boundary.  In the next chapter, again the path taken by
Sarasvati in her travel is delineated in a poetic language.

evam ukt tad tena brahma ca sarasvat | 
himavantam girim prpya pippaldramt tad || 
udbht s tad dev adhastt vka-mlata | 
tasmt sthnt tato dev pratcybhimukham yayau | 
antardhnena s prpt kedram hima-madhyagam || 
tat-samplavya gireh gam kedrasya pura sthit | 
tengnin karasthena dahyamn sarasvat || 
bhmim vidrya tasy
sdha pravi gaja-gmin | 
tad-antardhna-mrgea pravtt pacimmukh || 
ppa-bhmim atikramya bhmim bhitv vinirgat| 
tatra kpa samabhavannmn gndharva-sajñita || 
tasmt kpt punardy s babhva mahnad | 
mati smti tath prajñ medh buddhi gir dhar || 
upsik sarasvaty aet prasthitstad | 
puna pravtt s tasmt udbhedt pacim-mukh || 
bhtvaram samyt siddho yatra mahmuni | 
bhtvare sampastham tatra prpt manoramm || 
tasya dakia-dik-samsthm rudra-kotyupalakitm | 
rkaha-deam vikhytam gat sarvauadhi-yutam || 
tasmt puyatamt det rkahtm manasvin | 
samprpt vahnin srdham kuruketram sarasvat || 
puna tasmt kuruketrt vira-nagarasya s | 
samudbht sampasth antardhnt manoram || 
gopyano giriryatra tatra s punarudgat || 
gopyit keavena yatra te pu-nandan | 
kurvanta svni karmi na kaicit upalakit || 
tatra kue sthit dev mah-ptaka-nin | 
punar-gopyant dev ketram praptSti-obhanam || 
kharjr-vanam pann nand-nmnti tatra s | 
sarasvat puna tasmt vant kharjra-sajñitt || 
meru-pdam samsdya mrkaramam gat | 
yatra mrkaakam trtham meru-pde samritam  || 
sarasvat puna tasmt arbudrayam rit | 
gat vaa-vanam ramyam mrkaeyramt ubht || 
tapastaptam pur yatra vasihena samritt | 
tasmt vaa-vant puyt udumbara-vanam gat || 
meru-pde ca tatraiva tai yatra atapat tapa | 
udumbara-vant tasmt punardev sarasvat || 
antardhnena ikharam anyat prpt mahnad || 
meru-pdam tu sumahat-sura-siddha-nievitam | 
bhinnajana-caykram golnglam iti smtam || 
sthnam mano-ramam tasmt udgat s sumadhyam | 
vama-stambht suvipul pravtt daki-mukh || 
tatrodgama-vaa tasy tat-samkhyo vyavasthita | 
tata prabhti s dev suprabhm praka sthit || 
antardhnam parityajya prinm anukampay | 
tasy taeu ramyeu santi trthni kotia || 
teu trtheu sarveu dharma-het sarasvat | 
rudrSvatra-mrgeSmin pravaram prathamam smtam || 
tarattaranga-nmhyam kka-trtham mah-prabham | 
tatra trtham punstvanyat trtham dhrevaram smtam || 
dhrevart punascnyat gangodbhedamiti smtam | 
srasvatam tath gngam yatraikam samsthitam jalam ||    (35.21-47) 

Sarasvati sprang up near the roots of a tree, in the hermitage of
Pippalda, in Himalayas.  From there, she started towards west and went
underground.  She reached the Kedra Mountain in Himalayas, wetted its
peaks and stayed in fron. When the fire burnt her, she broke the earth and
went westwards underground.  She crossed the sinful land and broke the
earth to come out from a well (kpa) called, Gndharva.  Then she became a
big river with six tributaries Mati, Smti, Prajñ, Medh, Buddhi and
Giridhar.  From this place, she again flowed west.  Then, having reached
Bhutvara, the place of sage Siddha, she went nearby south to rkaha-dea,
which is famous for its medicinal plants and minerals.  From rkaha-dea,
she reached Kuruketra along with Aurva.  From here, she traveled and went
underground near Vira-nagar and came up at Gopyana hills.  From Gopyana
Lake, she reached Kharjr-vana (forest of date-palms).  From here, she was
known by the name Nand.  She reached the hermitage of Mrkaeya, where Mrkaa
Lake is located on the slopes of Meru hills.  From the hermitage of
Mrkaeya she came to Arbudraya where previously Vasiha had done penance.  
From the banyan tree at this place, she went to the udumbura (country fig;  
ficus glomerata) forest of sage Ta in the same Meru hills.  From the
udumbara forest, she went underneath to reach a dark peak called Golngula
at the foot of the hills.  From this place, she started flowing, with a
size thicker than a bamboo stick, southwards.  This place became famous as
Udgamavaa.  From here, she remained above ground and flowed clearly, with
several holy places on her banks.  Among the various trthas (holy waters)
the foremost is Kka trtha also known as Tarattaranga.  Then, there is
another placed called Dhrevara.  After Dhrevara is the trtha called
Gangodbhava.  Here the waters of Gang and Sarasvati mingle together.  
After this is Puarka tirtha.

Some of the places mentioned above can be identified. rikaha-dea8 is the
region around Sthevar (29o58'N, 76o48'E).  Arbudraya is the region around,
Mt.Abu (24.75oN, 72.25oE).  Kharjrvana, Tarattaranga and Dhrevar can be
identified as Khajuria (24.5oN, 72.25oE); Taranga hills (23.5oN, 72.6oE)
and Dharewada (24oN, 72.4oE) respectively.  In this fashion several more
places through which Sarasvati is supposed to have flown, are named.  
Places where the flow could have changed its direction are indicated.  
For example at Siddhevara, (Sidhapur 23.9oN, 72.3oE), Sarasvati flowing
westward to reach the western ocean, turned eastwards.  At this place is
Brahma trtha, also called Siddhavata.  Similarly, Sarasvati flowed
eastwards at Prcnevar.  There are considerable inconsistencies in the
narration and there are differences between this chapter and what was
stated in the previous chapters.  For example, it was said previously that
Sarasvati divided into five branches near Prabhsa.  However, here this
happens at a place called Gang-sangama after Vlakhilya trtha.  Places such
as Vaevar, Mavar and Dvravati, which may be identifiable (?), find
mention.  A few more verses are quoted here.

dakim diamsthya puna pacnmukh tad | 
sarasvat mahdevi vaavnala-dhri || 
taduttare tae trtham ekadvramiti smtam | 
tasmt trtht punacnyat trtham yatra guhevara || 
guhevart ntidre vaevaramiti smtam | 
divyam sarasvat-tre vysenrdhitam pur || 
mardak nad yatra sarasvaty sahaikatm | 
sangamevara-nmeti tatra lingam pratihitam || 
muvareti ca tath prasiddhim agamat kitau | 
muvara-sampastham sarasvatym mahodayam || 
nmn yat prngmukham trtham sarasvaty tae sthitam | 
mavyevara-nmn vai yatrea sampratihita || 
plukarika-sajñm tu trthamanyat punastata | 
sarasvat-tra-gatam i sevitam mahat || 
tasmdanyat sarasvatym trtham dvravat smtam | 
trthnm pravaram devi yatra sannihito hari || 
tatastasya sampastham trtham govatsa sajñitam | 
govatst naite-bhge dyate loha-yaik || 
tatastasmt mahtrtht blakranak yath | 
anulomya vilomyena dakiena uttarea ca || 
rullam prpya punardev samudbhut manoram | 
rullam nma puram yatra sam devena ambhun ||    (35.67-81) 

Sarasvati the carrier of vavgni, went south and then turned west.  On her
northern bank is Ekadvra trtha.  Guhevara and Vaevara, worshipped by sage
Vysa, come after this.  This is the place where a river by name mardaki
merged with Sarasvati.  This place is famous on earth as Muvara.  Near
this place is the east facing Mahodaya trtha.  Similarly on the banks of
Sarasvati is Plukarika where there was a settlement of sages.  After this
place, is Dvravati where Viu is present.  Near this is Govatsa.  To the
southwest of this place a metal column is visible.  From here onwards
Sarasvati along with her tributaries started flowing back and forth, South
and North, as she liked, like a playful child.  Then Sarasvati reached the
city of Rulla, founded by ambhu (iva) himself.

Further to the above, the progress of the river as per the text is
confusing, but eventually she divides herself into five branches, burns
Ktasmara mount and deposits the fire Aurva in the salt sea (verse 35.94).  
The first part of PK consists of 125 chapters.  After the 35th chapter
referred above the text drifts into the details of a large number of holy
places in and around Prabhsa.

Second Part 

The second part contains the remaining 240 Chapters, some long and some
short with two or three verses.  Here and there, some interesting
information is available.  What is significant is that distances between
various places along with specific directions are provided.  A folkloric
picture of a natural disaster with a famine, perhaps related to a
meteorite impact and/or drying up of Sarasvati river is further
elaborated.  Thus, we find in Chapter 129, titled
Akamlevara-mhtmya-varanam;

kadcit samanuprpte durbhika kla-paryayt | 
ayaca mahdevi kudhkrnt vicetasa || 
sarve cnnam parpsanto gat cla-vemani | 
jñtvnna-sangraham tasya prrthayñcakru antyajam || 
bho bho antyaja mahbuddhe raksmn anna-dnata | 
pra-sandeham pannn kngn kutprapitn ||           (129.5-7) 

Once due to vagaries of time (weather), there was a severe famine and the
sages became so desperate for food, they went to the house of a candala
who had a store of food and begged him. "Hey! Kindly give us, (emaciated
with hunger), food and protect us from death ".

Here ensues a conversation between the sages and a cla.  The sages defend
their action of begging food from a low caste person as an emergency
measure to protect their lives, and hence not objectionable.  They cite
examples of sage Bhradwja eating beef, Vivmitra and Vmadeva accepting
dog's meat, when otherwise they would have died.

Finally, the cla agrees to give food for one year, provided the best among
them consents to marry his daughter.  The sages are embarrassed, but agree
to the condition as being reasonable. Thus, the best among the sages,
Vasiha marries Akaml the pious daughter of that cla, who later by her
spiritual powers distinguished herself as Arundhat.  Among the various
geographical references, there is mention of a dry river citrpatha near
prabhsa, which can be seen, only in the rainy season. A lake called
brahma-kua, rich in chemicals, is described near this river;

ete rasca vividh dyante tatra sarvad | 
rajatam kipyate tatra suvaramiva jyate || 
pratyakameva tatraiva rasyanam anuttamam | 
payanti mnava devi kautukam tatkadbhutam || 
rasam hi paramam divyam tatrastham ca kalauyuge | 
siddham siddharasam pumsm vydhnm kayakrakam ||  (135.35-37) 

Various chemicals are present in that lake. Silver thrown into the lake
becomes like gold.  People look at this as a miracle. There are special
chemicals (mercuric compounds?)  which, cure men of their diseases.

Chapter 187 enumerates five Prabhsas namely: i) Prabhsa; ii) Vddha
Prabhsa;  iii) Jala Prabhsa; iv) Ktasmara Prabhsa and v) Bhairava Prabhsa.  
Even though a question is raised about how five Prabhsas came into
existence, no reasons are provided. On the contrary, the story of the
linga (symbol or phallus) of iva falling on earth is described.

tatastatpatitam lingam tatkat ankarasya ca | 
tasmin prapatite bhmau prakampata vasundhar || 
kubhita sgar sarve marydm vijahustad | 
rni giri-ngni trast sarve divaukas ||   (187.22-23) 

As soon as the linga of ankara fell down, the earth shook.  The oceans got
disturbed and crossed their boundaries.  Peaks of mountains broke down and
gods trembled with fear.

In chapter 198, the linga is cited as the reason for the five Prabhsas,
mentioned above.

atha kle ca kasmincid vajriScchditam priye | 
indregatya vasudhm bhayengatya sundari || 
ma tadudbhavo devi nirgacchan avarodhita | 
daa-koti pravistram jvlgram linga-rpa-dhk|| 
prabhsa-ketram sthya bhitv virbhavam sthitam| 
dhma-sanghai sametastu vypaymsa tajjagat || 
tata sura-ga sarve ayo veda-prag | 
astuvan vividhai sktai vedoktai ai-ekharam || 
samharasva sura-reha teja svam dahantmakam | 
na yvat pralayam yti tvadraka surevara || 
evam bhameu tridiveu surevari | 
tattejah pañcadhviam vypyeam jagat-trayam || 
pañca-prabhsa-rpea bhitv tatra vasundharm | 
yena mrgea nikrntam tanmrge ca mahanmaha || 
tatra tai sthpitam dvram supradee amajam priye | 
vihite atha ca randhreSsmin dhumo namupeyivn ||        (198.4-7; 9-12) 

Once, Indra covered the linga with his vajra weapon. Due to this, the heat
(ma)  produced by the fire got blocked.  A flame in the shape of a linga
broke open the ground at Prabhsa and spread all around, with clouds of
smoke.  Then all the gods and sages praised iva with vedic hymns. "Great
Lord, take back your energy in the form of fire, and protect the world
from dissolution".  Then the fire broke the earth at the five Prabhsas and
receded through the same opening.  The smoke subsided after the holes were
covered with stone slabs.

This story again is that of an object falling from the sky and the
resultant widespread fire.  The text further drifts into descriptions of
various lingas in and around Prabhsa, their names and days auspicious for
worshipping them.  A description, unconnected with other parts of the
text, is that of river i-toya. This is supposedly near the hot spring,
which forms the eastern boundary of Somantha region.  i-toya is said to be
flowing east and merging with the sea.  On the bank of this river a city
called Unnata (presently Una?), is described as being an ancient
settlement of Brhmaas.  So far in PK natural phenomena, which could have
lead to catastrophes were described, but nothing about loss of life.  In
the 346th chapter, there is reference to large-scale loss of life
associated most probably with a sea wave or a tsunami.  This is the story
of the Klakeya demons hiding in the ocean and sage Agastya eventually
drinking the waters to dry up the ocean.

klakeya iti khyt trailokyoccheda-krak | 
hata-e-samudrnte pravi bhaya-vihval || 
tataste mantraymsu pyante devat katham | 
hanyantm dharmio yeStra vidyante dhara-tale || 
atha te samayam ktv rtrau nikramya sgart | 
nirjaghnu tpasn tatra yajña-dna-ratn priye || 
prabhse tu mahdevi tatra dvdaa-yojane | 
vasihasyrame tatra maham mahtmanm || 
bhakitni sahasri pañca-sapta ca tpasn | 
atni pañca raibhyasya vivmitrasya oaa || 
cyavanasya ca saptaiva jblerdviatam mune | 
vlakhilyrame puye a-atni durtmabhi || 
nihsvdhyya-vaakram bhtalam samapadyata |  (346.4,8-12,16) 

Klakeya demons being afraid (of Viu) hid in the sea. They chalked out a
plan to hurt the gods by killing pious people on earth.  Finding an
opportunity in the night to come out of the sea, they killed those in the
Prabhsa region, for an extent of twelve yojanas.  In Vasiha-rama, twelve
thousand persons were eaten away.  In Raibhya's place five hundred, in the
hermitage of Vivmitra sixteen hundred, in Cyavana's place seven hundred,
in Jbala-rama two hundred and in Vlakhilya-rama six hundred people died.  
Due to this catastrophe, earth became devoid of Vedic learning and
practices.

Prabhsa and Sarasvati of PK The above description of the text of PK
provides what is purported to be the genesis, including a brief geography
of Prabhsa region of Saurra.  It has to be borne in mind that in ancient
times the connotation Saurra included the present day Kutch region also.  
The text narrates five natural phenomena, namely, (a) falling of celestial
objects and their intrusion into earth, (b) receding of the sea coast, (c)
swelling of the sea leading to wide spread loss of life, (d) a terrestrial
fire attributed as the cause of drying of River Sarasvati, (e) a severe
famine.  It is not that the text cogently describes any of the above in a
systematic fashion.  Nevertheless, a reader of PK will be able to surmise
that a textual tradition exists to the effect, the northwestern part of
India, suffered a great natural disaster.  It may be speculated that, this
should have been the reason for migration of population out of this
region. About the description of the places, if we take Prabhsa of PK as
the place, with the same name (identified with Somantha) today, some
locations such as the tapta-toya hot springs and an east flowing river are
in order.  However, when it comes to the path of Sarasvati, its link with
Somantha is riddled with contradictions.  The path described in Ch.
35.21-47, is reasonably consistent upto present day Rann of Kutch.  How
the river could have reached, Somantha (20.9oN 70.5o E)  is not
explainable from the contents of the text. One has to only speculate that
perhaps Sarasvati had a branch reaching Somantha, not delineated by PK for
some unknown reasons. The statement of Alberuni that a river by name
Sarasuti was flowing at Somantha may lend some support to this
assumption2.  Recently geologists have also speculated on the possibility
of the Himlayan Sarasvati reaching the present day Somantha alias
Prabhsa9.  On the contrary, the conflicting contents of PK might imply
that river Sarasvati reached the sea only in Rann of Kutch.  The text of
PK contains lengthy chapters, which describe only Prabhsa.  There are also
chapters, which mix up Prabhsa with Soma (moon), Somea, Somevara and
Somantha in a rather confusing manner so much so these appear to be later
interpolations into an earlier text.  A corollary to this would be that
the ancient Prabhsa should have been somewhere along the Gulf of Kutch.
Due to severe natural disasters, emigrating people might have founded
another town of the same name, along the southwestern coast of present day
Saurra, and named a near by river notionally as Sarasvati. Another
possibility is that of an existing holy place being renamed as Prabhsa.  
This issue will be discussed in detail later. As far as the chronology is
concerned, PK is of no help, notwithstanding the postulation of a long
time span for creation, interms of yuga, kalpa, manvantara and parrdha,
which is a clear anticipation of the modern day geological time scale.  
The apparent confusion about the time sequence and about the location of
Prabhsa indicates that PK was not composed in a single period.  It is
plausible the disaster was so cataclysmic; it led to a long discontinuity
and divergence in the cultural traditions of the society.  PK, as it is
now, perhaps represents a collection of diverse traditions and opinions,
in a single place to preserve them to posterity, without attempting to
resolve the contradictions.  The descriptions of weather change, famine, a
falling celestial object, wide spread haze, emanation of gases, and sea
waves can not be brushed aside easily as the inventions of the priestly
class of ancient India to keep the ignorant masses under their sway.  On
the other hand, the occurrence of these natural events finds support in
the still ancient epic literature.  The great epics Mahbhrata and Rmyaa
contain anecdotes identifiable as rare natural phenomena and in some cases
as disasters. Vedic literature starting with gveda, the earliest literary
composition of India, also contain references to celestial phenomena and
disasters related to ground impact.  It is possible PK recounts some older
incidents, in a different way. Hence a brief review of such incidents,
even if they sound strange and mythological would help in understanding PK
better.

Mahbhrata10 

In the 66th chapter of di Parvan, there appears a description of creation
with personification of celestial objects.  For example, Moon is supposed
to have twentyseven wives, who are `eyes of Time' (klasya nayane) and
`associates of stars' (nakatra yoginyah, v. 17).  In a similar tenor it is
stated

agneh putra kumrastu rmn aravalaya| 
kttikbhyupapatteca krtikeya iti smta|            
tvr tu savitu bhry vaav-rpa-dhri| 
asyata mahbhg s antarike avinvubhau||                     (di. p. 66. 24-25,36) 

Kumra, son of Fire is located in aravaa (forest of ara grass). Due to his
birth in Kttikas (Pleiades), he is remembered as Krtikeya. Tvr (daughter
of Creator)  wife of Sun, having taken the form of a fiery horse-head
(vaav), gave birth, in the sky, to (the twins) Avins.

The above verses appear in all the editions of MB.  Actually two celestial
events are indicated here.  The first is associated clearly with kttikas
or Pleiades, whereas the second is an object in the form of a horse-head
out of which Avins were born.  The word Vaav does not occur in gveda. It
appears in Vedic literature, in valyana Ghya Stra, as a proper name. The
popular meaning of this word in later Sanskrit, is pit-fire,
marine-fire11.  Its connection with a horse-face, (or a horse without
thighs), is attributed to the Vedas, for, it is said in MB

tatastam krodha-sajtam aurvoSgnim varulaye| 
utsasarja sa caivpa upayunkte mahodadhau|| 
mahat haya-iro bhtv yattad vedavido vidu| 
tamagnim udgiran vaktrt pibatypo mahodadhau||   (di.p.180.21-22) 

Then Aurva discharged the fire in the ocean. He having become a big
horse-head, as known to those learned in the Vedas, spews fire from his
mouth and drinks water in the ocean.

Thus, this form of terrestrial fire called vava (same as badab) has had a
celestial teleconnection, from very early times.  In araya parvan, while
describing places of interest (trtha-ytr), in Chapter 82, a visit to badab
is mentioned after Kashmir and river Vitast. This is not same as the fire
of PK, supposed to be the cause of drying up of river Sarasvati.
Interestingly we have historical evidence that in Kashmir people used to
celebrate a periodical festival where food was cooked on a natural fire12.  
Another interesting statement in MB is,

tato gaccheta dharmajño himavat-sutam arbudam| 
pthivym yatra vaicchidram prvam st yudhisthira||   (ara.p. 82.55) 

Then, one should go to Arbuda (mountain), son of Himavn, where in the past
an opening was in the earth.  This is a clear reference to a crater or
opening near Mt.Abu.  Ptolemy13 knew about this in second century AD. A
deep pit at Vasihrama, which is traditionally identified to be near
Mt.Abu, is mentioned in PK also.  After a few more verses, we read about
Vinaana, the place where Sarasvati supposedly flowed underground, by the
side of Meru-hills (ara.p. 82.111). In MB there is no emphatic narration
of a fire linked with the vanishing of Sarasvati.  On the other hand, in
Araya-parvan, several chapters are devoted to the description of Agni
(Fire) in his various aspects.  The story of Skanda as the son of a
strange fire (Adbhutgni) is narrated in detail.  Here a selection of such
description is presented.

ea raudrasya sanghto mahn yuktaca tejas| 
somasya vahni-srybhym adbhutoSyam samgama|| 
samhto hutavaha soSdbhutah sryamaalt|| 
vinihstya yayau vahni vgyato vidhivat prabhu|    (ara.p. 223.19,28 ) 

When Sun and Moon were together (on amvsya), there was a terrific impact
along with a light. This meeting of Moon with fire and Sun was a strange
phenomenon. A strange fire emanated from Sun and traveled as told by
Brahma (Creator).

The narration personifies a celestial fire (light) with the name Adbhuta
(literally strange).  In continuation of the above, it is narrated that
Adbhuta desired the wives of Seven Sages (Saptai i.e. Ursa Major). There
is an ancient myth cited in atapatha Brhmaa, that Kttiks were denoted as
wives of Saptais.  Thus in this story a strange fire is associated with
Pleiades. However, Svh (a daughter of Daka) approaches Adbhuta in
disguise, to collect his energy and to land on earth in the form of a bird
Supar. MB presents this as a historical event to have occurred much before
its own period.  If believed, the birth of Krtikeya would indicate an
exploding or a brightening star. It is said that, Skanda grew bigger day
by day for five days.

dvityym abhivyakta ttyym iubabhau| 
anga-pratyanga sambhta caturthym abhavad guha|| 
lohitbhrea mahat samvta saha vidyut| 
lohitbhre sumahati bhti srya ivodita||                      
tvtapantau samprekya sabloSrka-sama-dyuti| 
dvbhym bhujbhym kam bhuo abhijaghna||     
kran bhti mahsena trn lokn vadanai piban| 
parvatgre aprameytm ramimn udaye yath |  
sa payan vividhn bhvn cakra ninadam puna| 
tasya tam ninadam rutv apatan bahudh jan||             
sa tad vimal akti kipt tena mahtman| 
bibheda ikharam ghoram vetasya taras gire||                
tata pravyathit bhumi vyryata samantata||         
athainam abhajallok skandam uklasya pañcamm||         

(ara.p.224.20,24,26,28,30,37,38,40)  

He manifested on the second day, became a child on the third and acquired
his limbs on the fourth day...He is covered with a huge metallic glow and
lightning.  He shines in the reddish sky like the rising sun.... That boy,
equivalent to Sun in his light, hit the sky several times with his two
hands. Mahsena, playing as though drinking the three worlds with his
mouth, shines at the top of the mountain like Sun in the morning.  He made
a loud sound, hearing which large number of people fell down....  Then,
that spear projected by him, broke the peak of White Mountain. The
tormented earth broke in many places...then, people worshipped him as
Skanda, who fell down on the fifth day of the bright fortnight.

Even though the narration indicates that the celestial event was followed
with disastrous effects on earth, difficulty in separating myth from
reality is apparent.  There are different versions of the same episode
available in MB, giving a feeling that the celestial and terrestrial
events might have been mixed up in popular imagination.  It is further
said in the epic that a war broke out between gods and demons.  This may
be an allusion to falling objects, which were perhaps thought to be
originating from the region around Pleiades.  The anecdote is continued in
the next chapter indicating change in weather.

tasmin jte mahsatve mahsene mahbale| 
samutthasthu mahotpth ghora-rup pthagvidh|| 
str-pumso vipartañca tath dvandvni yni ca| 
graha-diptdi ankham ca rars ca mah bham|| 
nivasanti vane ye tu tasmin caitrarathe jan| 
te bruvannea soSnartha pvakenhito mahn|| 
apare grum hu tvaynarthoyam hta|                     (ara.p. 225.1-5) 

While the strong Mahsena was born, there were great disasters of different
kinds.  Opposition between men and women and similar inversion of dual
phenomenon occurred. Planets blazed and earth groaned strongly. People
living near that Caitraratha forest, said that all these bad happenings
were brought about by Fire.  Others, blamed Gru for the calamities.

The above verses are interesting, in that there were people who thought
differently about the same event.  The socalled inversion of dual
phenomena (this verse does not find a place in the critical edition from
Pune) has been interpreted to mean `summer became winter and winter became
summer', by later commentators.  This also hints at the possibility of the
flying Gru or Supar to be a meteorite impacting the ground leading to
calamities.  The place Caitraratha is traditionally identified as the
region, in the upper reaches of Sarasvati River, towards Himalayas.  The
event, whenever it might have occurred, should have been of great import
to the various groups of people populating the country.  We find the same
basic episode, described in different ways in later chapters also.  In
chapter 230, Skanda is described as son of Rudra and

"Rudra, embraced his son and released him.  As Skanda was released, a big
disaster took place and this suddenly stunned the gods. The sky and stars
burnt and the universe was paralysed.... Skanda (or Mahsena) came burning
with anger like Sun. Mahsena released the spear (akti).  That spear
removed the head of demon Mahia.  The fallen head created a passage
sixteen yojanas long, but being obstructed by the falling mountain,
remained unpassable.  However, now the people of Uttara-kuru, travel
through that path easily."
(ara.p. 230. 59,60,93,96-99) 

Again, we come across the episode of Krtikeya in alya parvan, during the
travelogue of Balarma along the course of Sarasvati.  The story is similar
to what was described above, with minor differences. Here, Krtikeya is
said to have split into four parts, called Skanda, kha, Vikha, and
Naigameya (Sal.p. 45.39-40).  As per the description in this parvan, the
last part namely, fiery Naigameya arrived in Gang.  This notation
Naigameya (one related to Nigama or Veda) is indicative of a connection of
this episode with Vedas, which will be discussed later.  Once again a
battle between Krtikeya and a demon, this time called, Ba is narrated.  
During this fight, Krtikeya is described as breaking Mt.Krauñca, with the
spear given by Fire (al.p. 47.84). In alya-parvan itself, the story of
sage Srasvata and a severe famine, which affected the region around River
Sarasvati find mention.

atha kle vyatikrnte mahatyati bhayakare| 
anvi anuprpt rjan dvdaa vrik| 
tasym dvdaa-vrikym anvym mahaaya| 
vtyartham pradravan rjan kudhrt sarvato diam||     (al.p. 52.37-38) 

After some time, a severe drought occurred for a period of twelve years.  
In that drought great sages affected by hunger, searching for sustenance,
went in all directions. This famine is described in detail again in
nti-parvan, chapter 139. Here a few verses are quoted to highlight the
realistic tone of the text. Bhma is supposed to tell Yuihira,

atrpi udharantmm itihsam purtanam| 
vivmitrasya samvdam clasya ca pakkae|| 
tret-dvparayo sandhau tad deva-vidhi-kramt| 
anvi abht ghor loke dvdaa-vrik|| 
prajnm ati-vddhnm yugnte samupasthite| 
tret-vimoka samaye dvpara-pratipdane|| 
na vavara sahasrka pratilomoSbhavat guru| 
jagma dakinam mrgam somo vyvtta-lakaa|| 
sarmsi saritcaiva kup prasravni ca| 
hata-tvio na lakyante nisargt daiva-kritt|| 
upa-uka-jala-sthy vinivtta sabh prap| 
nivtta-yajña-svdhyy nirvaakra-magal|| 
ucchinna-ki-goraka nivtta-vipapa| 
nivtta-ypa-sambhr vipraaa-mahotsav|| 
asthi-sañcaya-sakir mahbhta-ravkul| 
nya-bhyiha-nagar dagdha-grma-nivean||      (n.p. 141.12-20) 

Even now, people cite the ancient historical discourse of Vivmitra in the
settlement of the Cla.  At the junction of Tretyuga and Dvparayuga, a
twelve year long drought occurred. There was no rainfall and Jupiter was
retrograde.  Moon went south being eclipsed. Lakes, rivers, wells and
springs with no water were not seen due to nature's wrath.  Reservoirs
dried up, assemblies (of people) dissolved, and scholarly studies,
sacrifices and celebrations were withdrawn.  Agriculture, diary, and
commerce were given up.  Empty cities and burnt down villages filled with
the cries of goblins, became collecting places of bones.

The picture presented is that of a horrible famine.  As per the text, sage
Vivmitra stole dog meat during this famine, unable to bear the pangs of
hunger.  In the same book after a few more chapters, Nakula is supposed to
ask Bhma about the importance of `sword'.  Here again a celestial event
connected with Pleiades is described.

candram vimala-vyoma yathbhyudita-trakam| 
vikirygnim tath-bhtam utthitam ryate tad||     
tasmin utpata-mne ca pracacla vasundhar| 
mahormi-kalitvarta cukubhe sa mahodadhi||                  
cacra vividhn mrgn mahbala parkrama| 
vidhunvan asim ke tath yuddha cikray||  
kttik tasya nakatram ase agnica daivatam| 
rohim gotram sthpya rudra ca guru-sattama||        (n.p. 160.37,40,52,82) 

When the sky was clear with moon and stars, it is said that Asi (sword)
arose, emitting fire.  As it arose, the earth shook and the oceans got
disturbed. Displaying the sword in the sky, being intent on a battle,
(Rudra) moved in various directions. For Asi, Kttik is the birth star;
Agni (fire) is the god; Rohi (Aldebaran) is the clan and Rudra is the
teacher.

This myth is again that of a celestial object, since it is said that Brahm
(Creator) assured the gods and sages that he had intentionally created
this Asi, which means sword or spear.  The sword is given to Rudra the
deity of constellation Ardr (Orion) to fight the demons.  The further
verses indicate that a metallic object eventually landed on earth, leading
to earthquakes and disturbances in the oceans.  Names of twenty-eight
kings, who were recipients of the original sword in succession, are
listed, starting from Manu the first king.  This list ends with Kpa, the
teacher of Pavas and Kauravas. The above myths of Mahbhrata are all
similar in indicating that a long time before the MB period, a strange
fire was observed in the sky.  It may be surmised that, this event could
have been variously interpreted by different groups of people.  As MB
passed through many bards and copyists, differing traditions of Krtikeya,
might have found their place in the epic.  In any case, a celestial light
or object (nova) associated with Pleiades, should have given rise to all
further imaginative descriptions.  It is probable that this was followed
(not necessarily immediately) by a meteor, thought to be originating from
a near by region (Taurus) of the sky, hitting a populated part of the
country leading to a famine.

Rmyaa14 

The legend of Krtikeya mentioned in Bla-ka (Ch.36.16-19) can be recognized
as a celestial phenomenon, even though it is not as dramatic as in MB.  
There is reference to River Sarasvati and River Ganga as flowing next to
each other in Ayodhy-ka (Ch.71).  However, in Yuddha-ka (Ch.22), the
desertification of the land of bhiras in the northwestern part of India is
attributed to Rma's anger against the southern sea.

Vedic Literature 

Fire or Agni is a prominent god in the Vedas.  He is not same as Sun, even
though, similarities are present. He is connected with heaven and earth in
a unique way.  In interpreting the word arati, which is used only with
reference to Agni, twentyone relations have been identified between Agni
on one side and heaven and earth on the other side15.  All of these
highlight presence of Agni as a bright light in the sky, in a physical
sense also.  The available Vedic literature, comprising of Samhitas,
Brahmanas, Upaniads and subsidiary texts is too vast for a brief review.
The attempt here is only to point out a few hymns of gveda addressed to
Agni, meanings of which have close resemblance to the type of celestial
phenomena under discussion.  We read in the first book of gveda16 "Tvar's
ten daughters, vigilant and youthful, produced this Infant borne to sundry
quarters".

"Three several places of his birth they honour, in mid-air, in the heaven,
and in the water".

"Who of you knows this secret One? The Infant by his own nature hath
brought forth his Mothers".

"Like Savitar his arms with might he stretches; awful, he strives grasping
the world's two borders.  He forces out from all a brilliant vesture, yea,
from his Mothers draws he forth new raiment".
(I.95.2,3,4,7) 

"The beloved (Agni), strong, rich in food, rests in the brilliant (sun);  
secondly, in the seven auspicious mothers."

"Then also entered he the Mothers, and in them pure and uninjured he
increased in magnitude."
(I. 141.2;5) 

In the second book, hymn (II.2.2) says Agni shines day and night.  He also
increases in size, for;

"Him have they set in his own dwelling, in the vault, like the Moon
waxing, fulgent, in the realm of air."
(II.2.4)  

In the ninth and tenth books, Agni is the child of Seven Sisters, by which
the star group Pleiades is meant.  Moreover, he could be seen along with
the sun.

"The Sisters Seven, the Mothers, stand around the Babe, the noble,
new-born Infant,.."
(IX.86.36)  
"High hath the Mighty risen before the dawning, and come to us with light
from out the darkness. Fair-shapen Agni with white-shining splendour hath
filled at birth all human habitations."
(X.1.1)  "He shines, all-knowing,
with his lofty splendour: chasing black Night he comes with white-rayed
Morning."
(X.3.1)
"When he surpassed with his splendour the Dark and the White, bringing
forth the woman born of the great father and holding firm the ray, raised
high, of the sun, the brilliant one (Agni) shines with the bright ones of
Heaven"
(X.3.2) 15
"He, calling loudly to the Seven red Sisters, hath, skilled in sweet
drink, brought them to be looked on. He, born of old, in middle air hath
halted, and sought and found the covering robe of Pusan".
(X.5.5)  
Reference to a fiery celestial object falling on earth is also found in the 
tenth book. 

Divy agr irie nyupt t santo hdayam nirdahanti/                                 
			(X.34.9) 

This means,`heavenly charcoals having ploughed into iria, burn the heart',
where iria should refer to a locality and not `dice-board' as interpreted
by Griffith16 and a few others. The real meaning of the word iria, is of
considerable interest and will be discussed later. In the seventh book,
attributed to the authorship of Vasiha(s), indications of calamities, fire
spread and falling objects are found.  A few verses from the translation
of Velankar17are as follows.

"Out of fear for you, the dark-skinned tribes went away helter-skelter,
abandoning their posessions, when, O Vaisvanara, you blazed forth, shining
for Puru and battering the forts (of his enemies) O Agni."
(VII. 5.3)  "O Indra and Soma, do hurl down
from the heaven; do you strike down in the abyss the voracious demons,
with your never aging (weapons), which are heated with fire, which kill
with stones and which are destructive by their heat."
(VII.104.5) 
The above verse from the famed raksoghna hymn can be interpreted as a
description of meteorites falling on earth, similar to the demons Dhmra
and others of PK going underground.  There are verses that hint at
difficulties faced due to Varua (god of Oceans or Waters).
"And when I had gone within his presence, I considered Varua's face to be
that of Agni (through anger).  May the sovereign ruler take me to see the
great wonder, namely, what the sun and the darkness are in the rocky
caves."
(VII.88.2) 
"May I not go to the house of clay, O king Varua;......,have mercy"

"When I go forth, bursting as it were like a fully inflated
skin-bag,.....have mercy."
"Thirst has attacked your singer, while yet he stands in the midst of
waters;....have mercy"
(VII.89.1,2,4) 

Indication of a famine is indirect, as when Vmadeva says,

"In deep distress I cooked a dog's intestines. Among the Gods I found not
one to comfort."
(IV.18.13)16 

Another reference to a famine, in the Vedic literature, appears in
Chndogya Upaniad (I.10.1), when the Kurus were destroyed, hit by a shower
of stones and Uasti Ckryaa ate food in the village of elephant catchers
(ibhya-grma).  Kosambi18, discussing the above two texts, interprets
"....the Brahmin could take soiled food from the lowest caste only in
times of unutterable famine."

Discussion 

The main purpose of the present work has been to review Prabhsa-khaa of
Sknda- pura. To understand the historical background with which PK might
have been composed it became necessary to review the epics, particularly
Mahbhrata.  This in turn necessitated a brief review of gveda, for clues
on observation of natural phenomena in ancient India.  It may be
appropriate to mention here that there is clear evidence in gveda for sage
Atri having observed a total solar eclipse (V.40.5). It is easily seen
from the verses cited previously, that the birth of Agni in gveda to the
seven red sisters, should be same as the birth of Krtikeya to Kttikas in
MB.  Both the texts indicate that the object in the sky was comparable to
the sun in brilliance. In gveda, it is said that the object waxed like the
moon; while, as per MB it increased in its brilliance for five days.

Thus, there is a strong case for identifying the phenomenon as an
explosion or brightening of a star. The memory of this event perhaps was
waning by the time PK was composed, since in PK there is only an
unconnected statement to the effect that a demon was born in Pleiades
(...samutpanna kttiksu nicara// 20.45).  Eventhough there are references
to falling objects and weapons from the heavens in gveda, they are not as
categorical as in MB and PK.  In MB, the birth of Krtikeya is almost
immediately followed by his falling on earth as Skanda.  PK denotes the
heavenly objects falling on earth, as demons hit by Sun. Such differences
would only go to indicate that some important events have been variously
interpreted and merging traditions in course of time have brought up still
newer myths.  Hence, the texts taken together indicate a meteorite hitting
the earth at an unknown time, which perhaps caused considerable
destruction in the country.  Vedas as is well known, promote a way of life
with fire as the vehicle of worship. We read in Atharvaa Veda15,

pramuñcanto bhuvanasya reto gtum dhatta yajamnya deva| 
upktam ssamnam yad astht priyam devnm api etu ptha||    (2.34.2) 

"Do ye, releasing the seed of being, (bhuvanasya reto), show the way to
the sacrificer O gods: what, brought here and immolated, stood up, living,
let it go to the own abode of the gods."  This hymn may mean that, what
fell down from the heavens was interpreted, at least by some, to be the
essence of the universe. Vedic sacrifices (yajña) originated in analogy
with cosmic phenomena (e.g. Fire Altar as Prajpati and as Year), a few of
which atleast were celestial happenings. After observing a nova and a
falling meteorite, it was perhaps natural for the esoterically minded
followers of the Veda to hail Agni as the messenger from the heavens.
However, others (gamikas) perhaps physicalized the falling object as reta
(semen) or liga (phallus) or akti (power) of Rudra and took the phenomenon
to herald the arrival (gama) of his son, Kumra. Nevertheless, all the
texts are unanimous in indicating serious distress in the society due to a
famine.  The texts also strongly hint that this should have been due to
ground impact caused by the heavenly object.  Interestingly, PK attributes
the famine and distress more to the recession and swelling of the sea.

Place of Occurrence 

On the question of the place and time of occurrence of the events, none of
the texts provides any direct information. We can nevertheless surmise
that the disasters should have taken place broadly in the northwestern
part of the country, with particular reference to the border regions
between Rajasthan and Gujarat, including Kutch.  PK starts with Prabhsa on
Sourastra coast, but describes more accurately, the course taken by river
Sarasvati from Himalayas through Sthevar, Kuruketra and Arbudraya, ending
up in Rann of Kutch. PK refers to Prabhsa as the best among the holy
places in the desert (ara-ketra).  Its naming of five Prabhsa, including
one called Vddha (old)  Prabhsa, but failing to give their locations, adds
to the suspicion that Sarasvati in ancient times, did not reach the
present day Somantha. This is not to say that there was no Prabhsa, but
only it was in some other place, probably in Rann of Kutch. This region
even as it is now, fits in with the description in PK of a dried up sea.
PK mentions of a lake containing rasa or mercury near Prabhsa
(Ch.135.35-37) cited already. Kardama Mountain, which is said to contain
cinnabar as per Rasravakalpa19, has been identified as being near
Siddhapura (240N, 72.50E) by Murthy20 a geologist from Geological Survey
of India.  Another curious information as per the official Survey of India
map of Gujarat is of interest here.  A place called Mla Dvraka (original
Dvraka) exists along the west coast, below Somantha.  B.C.Law21 in his
book, Historical Geography of Ancient India informs that Ka's Dvravat was
originally situated near the mountain Girnar, but in later times, it has
been recognized as Dvrak on the seashore on the extreme west coast of
Kathiawad.  This means that the present day Dvrak was not considered the
original Dvrak by many people.  What could be the reason for this?  A
careful reading of MB text helps one to conclude that Prabhsa and Dvrak
should have been close to each other. Hence, identification and
integration of the destroyed ancient Prabhsa emotionally with Somantha,
might have lead to the naming of a near by place as Mla Dvrak.  Thus, PK
has internal evidences to show that the disastrous events were not along
the present day Sourastra coast, but in the Kutch-Mahesana region.  Rmyaa
indicates that the land of bhras became a desert. MB puts the place of
vanishing of River Sarasvati near the land of bhras.  As per MB, bhras
attacked Arjuna on his way back from Dvrak, after the passing away of Ka.  
Kosambi22 with his incisive approach to MB text cites this as an evidence
to argue that Ka's Dvrak could not have been at its currently assigned
location.  PK does not contradict this inference, since Sarasvati is said
to have passed through Dvravat, before reaching Prabhsa.  In the tenth
book of gveda, the stray verse about heavenly charcoals ploughing through
Iria is intriguing.  The word Iria is phonetically connected with Ri or Ra
(of Kutch), which would mean this was the place where some fiery objects
should have fallen. This word occurs in atapatha Brhmaa (V.2.3.2), where
it is interpreted as a self produced hollow or cleft, the residence of
deity Niti who presides over destruction25.  Periplus of the Erithrean
Sea23, which is an ancient account of a voyage along the coast of India,
refers to the Gulf of Kutch as Eirinon, which can be recognized as the
Iria of gveda.  This conclusion is also supported by what Ptolemy had to
say about the geography of India13. It is known that Ptolemy collected his
information from travellers and from contemporary Indian sources.  Thus,
place names and locations currently forgotten, but remembered by the
ancient society, are found on his map of India.  The important among these
for our discussion are Sarbana, Ordabari and Theophila.  Sarbana is
undoubtedly aravaa in Sanskrit, celebrated as the place of birth of
Krtikeya.  As per McCrindle "...the position of Xodrake and the other
places in the list must be sought for in the neighbourhood of Ra of Kachh.  
Xodrake and Sarbana have not been identified, but Yule doubtingly places
the latter on the Sambhar lake."  Further, Orbadarou is identified with
Arbuda or Mt.Abu. The identification of Theophila meaning `dear to God' in
Greek has not been possible, because, this is the translation or
explanation of a Sanskrit name.  There is no mention of Prabhsa or Dvravat
in the list, but arguably, either of them have a claim to be called
Theophila.  PK, mentions Vasihrama, which is traditionally near Mt.Abu, as
being near Prabhsa.  The crater near this place mentioned in the
arbuda-khaa of PK, should be same as the one mentioned by MB to be in
Arbuda. Ptolemy refers to Mt.Abu by two names Apokopa alias
punishment-of-gods.  The former name in Greek means primarily `what has
been cut off'.  As per McCrindle13 " It (Mt.Abu) was mentioned by
Megasthanes in a passage which has been preserved by Pliny who calls it
Mons Capitalia i.e. the `Mount of capital Punishment' a name which has an
obvious relation to the by name which Ptolemy gives it, the punishment of
the gods." This interpretation, fits in with the description in PK and MB
about breaking of mountains and destruction of Vasiha's settlement near
Prabhsa. We find some interesting references to this part of the country,
in the travels of the Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang, who visited India
during 629-645 AD.  He does not mention either Prabhsa or Somantha.
However, Thomas Watters24 the translator of the Chinese account informs;
"The narrative in the Records proceeds to relate that from Bharukhachcha
the pilgrim went nort-west above 2000 li to the Mo-la-po country.....It
was situated on the south-east side of the Mo-ha river.....About 20 li
north-west from the capital was the brahmin's town, and beside it the Pit
of Descent;  the torrents of summer and autumn never fill the latter, and
its side was a small tope.  The pilgrim then gives the local legend of the
proud blasphemous brahmin of the town who went down alive into hell at the
spot where the Pit appeared."  We see here again clearly reminisences of a
pit through which a celestial object (demon)  went underground near
Prabhsa as per PK.  The country, which the Chinese traveller visited, has
been identified as a kingdom of Western India lying between Broach, Kutch,
Valabhi and Anandapura24. It is known that during the seventh century AD
in this area, which overlaps with the present day Mahesana district of
Gujarat, Buddhism was flourishing.  Thus, it was natural for Yuan Chwang
to refer to the legend in a way supportive of Buddhism.  The place with
which his Brahmin's town can be identified is Brahman-wada (23.60N, 720E)
west of Mahesana.  Thus, all the ancient literature reviewed so far points
to the region around (23.50N, 71.50E) as the scene of the natural
disasters described in PK and hence as also the likely location of the
ancient Prabhsa Ketra, where River Sarasvati joined the sea.

Time of Occurrence 

From the texts cited it is impossible to fix up any kind of dating for the
celestial phenomenon of Agni (fire) in Kttiks, or for ground impact due to
falling objects.  An indirect approach has to be adopted to address this
question.  It is well recognized that Vedic rituals are codified in the
Brhmaa literature composed after the Samhitas. Hence, it would be most
appropriate to ask the question, whether the fact of observing fire in
Kttiks as inferred from gveda, finds support in the later texts.  
atapatha Brhmaa, provides evidence that the Agnydhna ritual was based on
such an observation.  The relevant verses as translated by Eggeling25 are
as follows.

"He may set up the two fires under the Krttikas; for they, the Krttikas
are doubtless Agni's asterism, so that if he sets up his fires under
Agni's asterism, (he will bring about)  a correspondence (between his
fires and the asterism): for this reason he may set up his fires under the
Krttikas."
(II.1.2 .1) 

"Moreover, the other lunar asterisms (consist of) one, two, three or four
(stars), so that the Krttikas are the most numerous (of asterisms): hence
he thereby obtains an abundance.  For this reason he may set up his fires
under the Krttikas."
(II.1.2 .2)
"And again, they do not move away from the eastern quarter, whilst the
other asterisms do move from the eastern quarter.  Thus his (two fires)
are established in the eastern quarter: for this reason he may set up his
fires under the Krttikas."
(II.1.2 .3) 

"On the other hand (it is argued) why he should not set up the fires
under the Krttikas.  Originally, namely, the latter were the wives of the
Bears (rksa); for the seven Rsis were in former times called the Rksas
(bears).  They were however, precluded from intercourse (with their
husbands), for the latter, the seven Rsis, rise in the north, and they
(the Krttikas) in the east.  Now it is a misfortune for one to be
precluded from intercourse (with his wife): he should therefore not set up
his fires under the Krttikas, lest he should thereby be precluded from
intercourse."
(II.1.2. 4) 

"But he may neverthless set up (his fire under the Krttikas); for Agni
doubtless is their mate, and it is with Agni that they have intercourse;
for this reason he may set up (the fire under the Krttikas)"
(II.1.2 .5) 

The first of the above is a clear enunciation of a celestial model for the
ritual under consideration.  There is an assertion that there is fire in
Pleiades, which should have been based on an accepted fact or traditional
knowledge.  If a doubt prevails, in line with popular belief that this
might be an imaginary or mystical statement, it is removed in the fourth
verse.  This is significant in that a critic questions the basis of the
model, on which the starting of the ritual was being proposed.  What he
points out, as a weakness in the model, is the lack of physical nearness
between U.Major and Pleiades.  In answer to this, the fifth verse confirms
the presence of Fire in Kttiks in an intimate physical sense, implying
this to be sufficient reason for the validity of the proposal.  Even
though, other asterisms were permitted for the ritual the pride of place
was for Kttiks only.  The second verse, establishes that the Seven Sisters
of gveda Samhita were infact the star cluster Kttik that arose in the
east.  The third verse is a statement considered helpful in fixing a time
epoch for the observation of Pleiades rising in the east.  S.B.Dikshit26 a
renowned Sanskrit scholar of 19th century, by astronomical calculations,
found that such a perfect eastern position for Pleiades would have been
observable in India around 3000 BC. More recently, N.Achar27 has
demonstrated using modern planetarium softwares that the stated position
fits in accurately for 2926 BC. The most conservative interpretation of
Kttik being in the east would refer to its heliacal rising at the vernal
equinox.  Parpola28 in his monograph on deciphering of the Indus script,
observes that Kittik was exactly at the equinoctial point c. 2240 BC, and
that it was the star nearest to the equinoctial point during 2720-1760 BC.
In any case, the physical observation of a blaze in Kttik, as described in
gveda, should have been earlier than the Agnydhna ritual and the
composition of atapatha Brhmaa text. This would put the probable
time-period of observation of the nova to c. 2500-3000 BC or even earlier.
There is again no clue to when the ground impact and fire due to a falling
object might have taken place.  The tenth book of gveda, where the falling
of a fiery object finds mention, is generally considered a relatively late
composition.  Moreover, the books of gveda are organized along family
lines with an unknown chronological order.  Hence, considerable time might
have elapsed between the above two events, eventhough no definitive
conclusion is possible.  MB mentions the two events as though they were
historical and consecutive.  Thus, the ground impact including the crater
near Mt.Abu should have been much before the central theme of MB.
Unfortunately, the date of MB has remained undecided.  Recently, the
present author29 has shown that, the eclipses and planetary positions
mentioned in MB are compatible with the epoch 1443-1493 BC. This would
indicate that the impact should have occurred prior to this period, in a
broad time window of a few centuries.  If we take the statement in nti
Parvan of MB that twentyeight persons were in posession of Asi as a
historical statement and assign, on an average, twentyfive years of
posession to each person then it follows this event could have occurred in
1800-2200 BC. A more precise estimation of the date, based on the above
literature alone, appears not possible.  About River Sarasvati PK gives a
plausible course of flow. This matches reasonably well, with what modern
geologists have surmised as the possible flow route30.  The river should
have started from Himalayas and flown through Kuruketra, with several
tributaries.  A tributary (Mandakini?) originating in the Aravalis should
have joined the river downhill of Mt.Abu.  Severe ground upheavals,
reasons for which included a meteorite impact, should have caused
Sarasvati to slowly dry up and eventually vanish near Vinaana of MB.  The
tributary from Mt.Abu continues to flow, known by the name Sarasvati, in
the official Survey of India map of the State of Gujarat.

Summary and Conclusion 

Prabhsa-khaa, traditionally considered as a part of Sknda-pura contains
interesting information about natural disasters, which should have
affected the northwestern part of India in the remote past. Eventhough,
the narration is mythological in format, the contents are such that the
narrated events should have actually taken place and the memory passed on
from generation to generation in the form of folk stories and anecdotes.  
All the incidents mentioned in PK find place in one form or other in MB
and to some extent in gveda.  However, there are considerable differences
in the details and hence these texts perhaps represent different
traditions.  The observation of Fire in Kittik finds mention in gveda,
atapatha Brhmaa, MB and PK.  The first two, properly belonging to Vedic
literature do not propound this as the birth of a god or a divine being
with form, whereas both Rmyaa and MB refer to this event as the birth of
Krtikeya, who is a popular deity of the Hindu pantheon.  The description
in MB is vivid and detailed.  From the way the event is described, it is
conjectured that this should have been an observation of brightening of a
star (nova) in the cluster of Pleiades.  Astrophysicists may be in a
position to evaluate the veracity of the observation of this event in
scientific terms.  PK cursorily refers to this event, but dwells more on
the ground openings caused due to impact of falling objects.  Perhaps
these were meteorite impacts, which caused considerable direct destruction
and in addition generated sea waves.  MB supports the story of impact and
in one place goes to the extent of informing that a metallic object landed
on earth.  The implication is that this was the sword (Vel or Sakti)  of
Krtikeya, who is known by the names Velyudha and aktidhara.  All the texts
are unanimous that subsequently there was a severe famine leading to
prolonged misery in the society.  The place of occurrence of the impact
and related phenomenon should have been in the Kutch-Mt.Abu region.  
There are evidences in gveda, MB, and PK to this effect.  It follows that
the present day Prabhsa, popularly identified with Somantha, was not the
original site of ancient Prabhsa.  Archaeological investigations at the
ancient site, near (23.50N, 71.50E), should lead to interesting new
information.

Acknowledgements 

The work reported here is supported by the Indian National Academy of
Engineering, N.Delhi, under its Indian Engineering Heritage (Civil) study
group activity.  Thanks are due to Sri M.K.Raina of Lalla-Ded trust, Thane
for sending extracts of Reference 12.  Discussions with
Dr.S.Ananthakrishnana of GMRT, Pune were useful.

Notes and References 

1. H.Bakker. Personal Communication.  Also see
http://www.theol.rug.nl/~bakker/

2. E.C.Schau , "Alberuni's India" vols. I and II, Munshiram Manoharlal
Pub.  Pvt.Ltd., N.Delhi, 1992.
Vol.I; Chapter XXV: "The river Sarsati falls into the sea at the distance
of a bowshot east of Somanath."

3.  Sknda-puram; Prabhsa-khaa, in three volumes. Sanskrit Text with
Kannada translation by Pt.M.Subrahmanya Sastri, Sri Jayachamarajendra
grantha-ratna-mala, No.14, Publ.Palace of Mysore. 1958.

4.Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its Environs, Publ. by Geological
Survey of India, Calcutta, 2000.

5.Kalhana, "Rajatarangini", in three volumes translated into English,
M.A.Stein 1900, reprint Motilal Banarsidas, N.Delhi, 1989.

6.Varha-mihira, "Bhat-Samhita", in two volumes translated into English by
M.R.Bhat, Motilal Banarsidas, N. Delhi, 1981.

7.E.C.Schau, "Alberuni's India" vols. I and II, Munshiram Manoharlal Pub.  
Pvt.Ltd., N.Delhi, 1992.  Vol.II, Chapter LVIII: "It is the flow and ebb
to which Somanath owes its name.(i.e. master of the moon);  for the
stone(or linga) of Somanath was originally erected on the coast, a little
less than three miles west of the mouth of the river Sarsuti,.....Each
time when the moon rises and sets, the water of the ocean rises in the
flood so as to cover the place in question.  When, then, the moon reaches
the meridian of noon and midnight, the water recedes in the ebb, and the
place becomes again visible.  Thus, the moon was perpetually occupied in
serving the idol and bathing it.  Therefore, the place was considered
sacred to the moon.  The fortress which contained the idol and its
treasures was not ancient, but was built only about a hundred years ago."

8.Haracarita of Ba (7th Cent AD) mentions rkaha-janapada which contains
Sthvara.  Kuru jngala is considered to be same as rkaha-dea.

9. J.N.Malik, S.S.Merh and V.Sridhar, in "Vedic Sarasvati, Evolutionary
History of a Lost River of Northwestern India", (ed) B.P.Radhakrishna and
S.S.Merh, Geological Society of India, Bangalore, Memoir 42, 2002. pp
163-174.  However, it has to be noted that these authors have equated
Prabhasa with Somanatha, without any critical evaluation.

10. Mahabharata. Various editions are available. Here mainly the Critical
Edition of BORI Pune, available at the web site
http://home.dongguk.edu/user/india/text/e-mbh.html has been used.

11.Amara Koa: ucirappittamaurvastu vavo vaavnala|| (I.1.56)

12. W.R.Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir, Kashmir Kitab Ghar, Jammu-Tawi.  
Chapter III: "Soiyam is a tract of land situated in the village of
Nichhama, Machipura.  The soil became heated in 1875, and for thirteen
months the heat was so great that the Hindus who flocked to see the
miracle were enabled to cook their food over the burning ground.  The soil
has been burnt to a hard red brick, in which are perfect impressions of
leaves.  Some thirty-six years before 1875 the soil became hot, but the
phenomenon only lasted for two months.  The people believe that the
occurrence is a Karan, that is, an abnormal display of the powers of
nature manifested at certain fixed periods.  And they are quite certain
that Soiyam will again boil up in the year 1911.  Dr.W.king, the director
of Geological Survey of India,.....remarks `it must not be
forgotten,....that there are reported in the Kashmir region of hidden
seams of tertiary coal having taken fire and produced the burnt appearance
of outcrop described above'."

13. J.W.McCrindle, "Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy" Munshiram
Manoharlal Pub.Pvt.Ltd., N.Delhi, 2000.

14 Srimad-Valmiki-Ramayanam, Sanskrit text brought out by a tea m of
scholars,

15.A.Venkatasubbiah, "Vedic Studies" Vol.I, Surabhi and Co., Mysore 1932.

16.R.T.Griffith, The Rigveda English Translation, Available at
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/

17. H.D.Velankar, "Rgveda Mandala VII" Text, translation and notes,
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1963.

18.D.D. Kosambi, Combined Methods in Indology, Indo-Iranian J., vol. 6,
1963.  Available in Collected papers edited by B.Chattopadhyaya, Oxford
Univ. Press, N.Delhi 2002.

19.M.Roy and B.V.Subbarayappa, "Rasravakalpa"  Ind. Natl.Science Academy,
N.Delhi, 1976.

20. S.R.N. Murthy, An Occurrence of Cinnabar in Rasarnavakalpa, Ind. J. of
Hist. of Science, 14 (2), 1978, 83-86.

21. B.C.Law, Historical Geography of Ancient India, Oriental Reprint,
Indian edition, 1982.

22.D.D.Kosambi, The Historical Krishna, The Times of India Annual 1965.  
Available in Collected papers edited by B.Chattopadhyaya, Oxford Univ.
Press, N.Delhi 2002

23. W.H.Schoff, " The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in
the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" Available at web site
http://www.und.ac.za/und/classics/india/periplus.htm

24. T.Watters, "On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India", Vols I and II,
Munshiram Manoharlal Pub. Pvt.Ltd., N.Delhi, 1996.

25.T.Eggeling "The Satapatha Brahmana" English translation in 3 volumes,
Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1963.

26.S.B.Dikshit "Bharatiya Jyotisa Sastra" Govt. of India Press,
Calcutta,1969.

27. B.N.Narahari Achar, "On the Astronomical Basis of the date of
Satapatha Brahmana", Ind. J of History of Science, 35(1), 2000, 1-19.

28. A.Parpola "Deciphering the Indus Script" Cambridge Univ.Press,
Cambridge, 1994.

29.R.N.Iyengar, "Internal Consistency of Eclipses and Planetary Positions
in Mahbhrata", Ind.J.of Hist.of Science, INSA, June 2003.

30.K.S.Valdiya, "Saraswati, the River that Disappeared", Univ. Press,
Hyderabad, 2002.