http://SaturnianCosmology.Org/ mirrored file For complete access to all the files of this collection see http://SaturnianCosmology.org/search.php ========================================================== ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF VEDIC STUDIES (EJVS) Vol. 10 (2003) Issue 6 (Nov. 14) (©) ISSN 1084-7561 ======================================================= A note on the Ramayana S.S.N.Murthy, School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi-110067, INDIA. E-mail: ssnm0700 at mail.jnu.ac.in The stories of rAmAyaNa (Rmn) and mahAbhArata (Mbh) are always viewed differently from the other hindU mythological stories as they are categorized as 'itihAsa' or Epics, implying that they contain some historical facts. The authors of such Epics generally tended to make liberal use of philosophy, yoga, numerology and Vedic themes, often obscuring the original historical event (if any) . [N 1] In the past, Rmn has been subjected to in depth analysis to find out to what extent the story depicted in Rmn is historical in nature (for a review, see: Goldman 1984; Brockington, 1984, 2000). However, the problem is compounded by the presence of three early versions of the Rmn: the vAlmIki Rmn; the rAmopakhyAna of the Mbh and the 'dazaratha jAtaka' (DJ), (the Buddhist version), each of them differing from the other considerably. Also, these versions seem to have undergone a lot of modification (especially the hindU versions), before they were handed over to us in their final form. [N 2,3] Under these circumstances, keeping in mind the religious purpose behind all this literary activity, it is difficult to pinpoint the original story. From all the available literary evidence, it appears that the Epic Rmn was compiled between 300BC-200AD, although the core story could be as old as 500BC (Winternitz, 1996, Goldman 1984; Brockington, 1984, 2000). The main story as depicted in the hindU version of Rmn (which is the subject of present discussion), if historical, can not be older than the kingdom of kosala as the story revolves around it, and hence, cannot be given a date prior to ~700 BC. Some historians date the event between 800-600 BC and the scene of the battle (laMkA) to be Chota-Nagapur region in India (Sankalia, 1971; Thapar, 1987); while others view the battle as part of an aggressive Aryan colonization of Southern India (Kosambi, 1999; Mudaliar, 1983) and the modern Srilanka to be the place where the great battle took place. Some orthodox scholars place the event of Rmn even prior to the historical period of Mbh, but unfortunately the Mbh that we know today appears to be a dramatized version of 'the battle of ten kings' described in RV and, as such, has no historicity of its own (Murthy, 2003). Some absurd dates have also been suggested in order to establish monkeys in the Epic Rmn, as the missing links in the evolution of human beings. The archeological excavations (Ghosh, 1989) at places mentioned in the Epic story have failed to substantiate the above claims or yield any information of importance in the context of the historicity of the Epic. However, the archeological discovery of a large number of Harappan sites in the Indian subcontinent especially in the last 20-30 years (Kenoyer, 1998), has given rise to fresh speculation that these sites might have something to do with the kingdoms mentioned in hindU mythology. Some claims [N 4] have also been made to establish the hero of Rmn as belonging to the Harappan civilization, and have become a subject of criticism (Witzel and Farmer, 2000). Many explanations exist regarding the origin and theme of the Epic story. According to Jacobi (cf. Sen, 1997; Winternitz, 1996; Garrett, 1997) the Epic is largely based on the Vedic theme of the indra-vRtra myth and vegetational fertility, and hence, it is believed that the events mentioned in Rmn are of doubtful historical value. Jacobi's argument is based on the mention of the word 'sItA' to mean 'furrow' (or the goddess of agriculture [N 5] ) in the Vedas [N 6]. Although, in the Vedas the word 'rAma' appears to refer to a man [N 7], in the later hindU mythology it is always connected with the name of persons associated with agriculture (Winternitz, 1996; Dumezil 1959 [N 8]) . Weber and others (cf. Davane, 1995) see a strong analogy between Rmn and the Greek mythology and similarities between the Greek goddess of agriculture 'Athene' and 'sItA' of the Rmn. However, comparison of rAma with the Vedic god indra, as is done in some of the above works, is not entirely convincing as many other characters of the Epic are also referred to as indra. However, one can not miss the involvement of brahmA in the entire Epic. brahmA (m) is not a vedic deity and is not mentioned either in the Vedas or in the earlier upaniSads. He is a personalized form of the abstract Brahman (n) of the late Vedas and upaniSads. He is credited with some cosmogenic myths associated in the later vedic period with prajApati, essentially he (brahmA) is a fusion of a creator deity with the impersonal absolute brahman in a more popular and therefore, personalized form (Brockington, 1997). He was a major figure in the early purANic time (200 BC to 100 AD), but is subordinate to brahman along with viSNu and ziva. During the purANic times, he is also conceived as a fusion of certain traits associated with the other Vedic deities like viz. prajApati, dhAtA, vizvakarman, hiraNyagarbha and puruSa as well (Khan, 1981; Gonda 1950) [N 9] . As prajApati he is related to kAla, time personified as a god (AV.XIX.53) and savitR (RV.4.53). The bhRgus are one of the main contributors to AV [N 10], also known as brahma-veda. The senior bhRgu is said to be born to the prajApati in the brAhmaNas (Khan, 1981; Mitchiner, 1982) and whereas, in Rmn (Rmn.VII.94.613), he is said to born of the mind of brahmA. Interestingly, the authorship of Rmn is attributed to the sage vAlmIki, a descendent of bhRgu. Consequently, it is not surprising that a deeper analysis of Rmn clearly reveals an attempt by vAlmIki to not only involve brahmA (though indirectly) but also to cleverly incorporate the myth of creation [N 11] ascribed to brahmA in the Epic story with a view to glorify him. The characters and events actually revolve round the natural phenomenon of the formation of rain (water) that creates and nurtures all life on earth. In the entire Epic one comes across innumerable instances which corroborate this view and which are discussed below. It is assumed the reader is familiar with the Epic Rmn [N 12]. (I).brahmA as the main force in the Epic: On a closer examination of Rmn, one can realize that it is actually brahmA who is the main force: (i) he creates both rAma and his brothers, by offering the divine pAyasa to dazaratha through his assistant; (ii) is instrumental in creating rAvaNa, through his mind born son pulastya brahmA; (iii) he is also instrumental in creating problems to the three worlds by making rAvaNa and indrajit powerful through his 'boons'; (iv) his creation, the divine chariot 'puSpaka', is used to kidnap sItA, which becomes the root cause of enmity between rAma and rAvaNa, and (v) finally, he ends the entire drama by getting rAvaNa killed by his divine weapon, the 'brahmAstra'. Moreover many characters in the Epic are either the descendants of brahmA or were made powerful by his boons. The author's fascination for brahmA in the Epic also becomes clear by the frequency with which he uses certain numbers, especially four, seven and ten, associated with the cult of brahmA [N 13] for the description of various themes, characters and events. Various forms of brahmA, in which different people worshipped him, made various numbers sacred to the respective worshippers. It is very difficult to say at what stage these numbers were inducted into the story either collectively or in stages, because the numbers seven and ten are also used many a time in the Vedas. The prevalence of these three numbers in the brahmA cult is because of three different philosophies associated with brahmA. The numeral ten is sacred as the brahman (n) is said to pervade the entire universe, which is often described as having ten different directions [N 14] and since, brahmA is a personalized form of Absolute brahman (n), this number has also become sacred to the worshippers of brahmA. This number has been used at a few places in Rmn [N 15]. In this context it is interesting to see the incantation AV. IV.6.1, addressed (according to the anukRmnaNI) to the deity takSaka [N 16] (brahmA in the form of vizvakarmA [N 17]?), which reads as follows. "The brAhman was born first with ten heads, with ten mouths; he first drank the soma; he made the poison sapless" - (Whitney's translation). Whitney is of the opinion that the term 'brAhman' refers to the first varNa [N 18]. The same verse in the translation of Devi Chand reads, "The ten headed and ten faced brAhman was first brought to life. FirstŠ" The word 'ten headed brAhman' may also mean as the one who is endowed with ten good qualities, and the word 'ten faced brAhman' as the one who possesses settled rule in ten directions (Devi Chand, 1982). [Spiritually, the number ten refers to ten senses: five of internal and five of action (Thadani, 1933)]. Interestingly, the idea behind the creation of rAvaNa, the villain of Rmn, can be traced to the above verse. He possesses ten heads [N 19]. [And also he is said to be the grandson of brahmA (occasionally addressed as 'rAvaNa brahmA'). It is probably because of this reason, he is also said to belong to the first varNa, (also pl. refer to foot note.14)]. Interestingly enough, rAvaNa in Rmn is said to be well versed in the Vedas and is also said to have subjugated all the rulers of the eight / ten directions. A similar meaning can also be ascribed to the word 'dazaratha', a title said to have been given to the father of Rmn [N 20], who is also well versed in the Vedas and at a few places, he is compared to prajApati (I.15, 160). By relating them to brahmA/prajApati the composer's intention to involve brahmA in the Epic becomes evident again, and hence, one does not see any historicity in these characters. The other number used in Rmn [N 21] and considered sacred to the Vedic RSis is the number seven. Connected with the creativity of prajApati, this number is important in yoga philosophy, too. According to Mitchiner (1982), the seven RSis 'reside in the head' and the head is the residence of brahman (the absolute, Supreme of all) and is the brahma-loka itself -- whence the entire creation is sent forth with the help of the seven RSis or prANAs (vital airs). Because brahmA is a fusion of a creator deity (prajapati) with the impersonal absolute brahman in a more popular and therefore, personalized form, the same numeral seven has become sacred to brahmA too. In iconography, this aspect is represented symbolically in brahmA's car being drawn by seven swans [N 22] (Khan, 1981). Interestingly enough, seven is also associated with the cult of kAla [N23] . An important number used very liberally in Rmn that deserves a detailed discussion is the number four, which is central to brahmA. For a hindU, only The Absolute, the brahman, represented by the square is perfect and all that is on earth is imperfect. The square with its four sides, implies stability and unchanging character of The Absolute (brahman), and is represented as a four petalled lotus seat of brahmA [N 24] in hindU mythology (Bunce, 2002). This association of brahmA with number four can clearly be seen in his iconographical features as four heads and four arms. In the purANas, the four arms symbolize four directions, and the faces refer to four Vedas, yugas, varNas (classes) or goals of life [N 25]. This number four appears in the Epic altogether about a couple of hundreds of times, and in about not less than 55 different contexts, which have been summarized in appendix I. A reference to the purANic attributes of brahmA with four arms and four heads appear in Rmn at many places as can be seen in appendix I. In the purANas, it is also said that the two frontal arms of brahmA are said to symbolize his activity in the manifest world and the other two located on his back symbolize his activity in the unmanifest world [N 26] (cf. Khan, 1981). Coincidentally, the four sons of king dazaratha are referred to as four arms emanating from the same body (I, 53). Only two sons (rAma and lakSmaNa) are involved in the later story (which is believed to be the genuine Rmn [N 27]) while the other two (bharata and zatrughna) have no role to play. The appearance of the number four at many places in the Epic also gives rise to the suspicion that the brothers of rAma are not historical persons [N28], [N29] . The cult of brahmA is also known to be closely associated with sAMkhya philosophy, ascribed to the sage kapila. The purANas often discuss the creation of four kinds of beings viz., titans, gods, manes and humans by brahmA, which is also mentioned briefly in Rmn (see, appendix I). According to sAMkhya philosophy, the entire creative activity is based on the equilibrium among the three 'guNas', viz. sattva, rajas and tamas, and is described for example in BhP (1.2.8.26-28), the details of which are presented in appendix II. It appears that the same philosophy has been used for the creation of monkeys and bears in Rmn and in the final battle at laGkA which is the nucleus of the story of Rmn, four different kinds of beings are involved (see item No.3 of appendix I). A close one to one correspondence can be noticed between the beings listed in appendix II and the beings invoved in the war of Rmn as: titans_ titans, gods_ monkeys, manes_ bears, humans_ humans (rAma + lakSmaNa). The justification partly comes from the fact that pitRs/manes are associated with the seven star constellation 'RkSAH' (Mitchiner, 1982, Macdonnell and Keith, 1995; Witzel 1995, 1999), where the word 'RkSAH' also refers to 'bears'[N 30] . Interestingly, it also means 'a species of apes' (Apte, 1998), though this is a late usage. The other word in Sanskrit for bear is 'bhallUka' which means both a monkey and a bear (MWD). At many places in Rmn, one can see a confusion created intentionally by the composer who refers to the bears as monkeys (see, for example, I.74). The internal evidence of Rmn (ayodhyA kANDa), justifies that the gods have taken the form of monkeys [N 31]. (II) The creation of rain and vegetation In addition to involving brahmA directly in the Epic, the author has tried to depict him as the creator by weaving the entire story around the (philosophy and) phenomenon of rain (so important to the Aryans after they had settled in the region of Punjab [N 32]), associated with mountains, clouds and vegetation. This is evident in the way the important characters in the Epic are named. (a). Monkeys: Most of the prominent monkeys in Rmn [N 33] are named after the mountain ranges mentioned in it, and in some of the oldest purANas, the details of which are given in appendix III. A closer examination of appendix III reveals that the mountains stated are all located around meru, the abode of brahmA. It clearly shows the composer is not interested in referring the monkeys to any historical figures, as some of the mountains mentioned in appendix III are semi-mythical in nature and some of them can not even be identified with any certainty with the mountains of India (Ali, 1983). (b).The Titans: The comparison of titans to clouds can be seen often in the yuddha kANDa of Rmn. Clear testimony of this is the title of 'meghanAtha' (lord of the clouds) given to indrajit. The association of titans with clouds can also be seen in the use of the word 'asura' to denote them, which also means a 'cloud' (MWD). (c) sItA: As mentioned earlier sItA means furrow or the goddess of agriculture and is also identified as the wife of indra (MWD). In the Epic Rmn, she spends most part of her life in a forest, and even during her captivity she was kept under a tree in laGkA (not in a palace!). She has often been compared to a forest as in a passage (V.15): "sItA looked like the earth with its dark blue forests in the rainy season". Similarly, she was also compared to a forest divinity and to the goddess 'zrI lakSmI' (III.34) who elsewhere in the Epic (VII.109) is called 'the goddess of vyavasAya'. The word 'vyavasAya' in many Indian languages means 'agriculture' (MWD, Sankaranarayana 1982). These descriptions, in addition to her extraordinary birth and death, clearly identify her with vegetational fertility. (d). rAma: rAma is addressed as 'rAma-candra' throughout the Epic. It is said (III.31) that he in countenance is like the moon and he spreads happiness everywhere like the moon (II.16). However, such comparisons alone can not be the basis for addressing him as 'candra', as many people including sItA, are compared to the moon in countenance (see, for example, V.30, 404). We must remember that the in the Epic/purANic times, the Vedic soma is identified with the moon, candra [N 34]. Like the soma of Vedic times candra is also identified as 'the lord of vegetation' (Apte, 1998). And interestingly enough the moon during the purANic time, was believed to be responsible for converting the water collected by the Sun into rain drops through its cool virility [N 35]. Apart from his identification with soma, rAma appears like indra [N 36] as a god of battles. He, in the form of indra, is helped by his trusted Vedic allies; the wind god, maruts (hanumAn), and viSNu (lakSmaNa) [N 37] in slaying the titans and most of them are killed by rAma, and hanumAn, along with lakSmaNa [N 38]. At the same time, the composer has tried to place brahmA much above the popular gods of that time by equating rAma with one of the four hands of brahmA to help him in his creative activity in this manifest world. Thus, it appears that the final battle of the Epic is the symbolic representation of raining phenomenon where one can visualize the mountains (monkeys and bears) blocking the clouds (titans), thereby helping indra and soma (rAma-candra) to deliver water to help vegetation (sItA) [N39]. In this context, it is interesting to note that at the end of the battle, all the monkeys are still alive (as most of them were revived by the magical herbs), whereas the entire leadership of the titans is terminated. This is one of the several layers of meaning: all poems, rituals, paintings/sculpture work on several layers (some not even intended by the artist!) which people see in them. The intention of the composer to involve both types of 'prajAs', i.e., bipeds and quadrupeds and also, both animate and inanimate things (fulfilled by the comparison of monkeys and titans to mountains and clouds, respectively, as described above) as part of the creation of prajApati or brahmA are very much clear from the above discussion. (III).Other points of interest in the Epic: (a).'RkSAH', as a key word in the Epic: Apart from the significance of this word in the creation myth of brahmA as discussed in the previous section (I), this word appears in the Epic in many contexts; 1.the author of the Epic vAlmIki, a descendent of bhRgu, is also called RkSaH [N 40]; 2.'RkSapuGgava' (jAmbuvat), is the king of the bears; 3.a mountain named 'RkSavat', is the abode of the monkeys and bears; 4. 'RkSarAja', the father of vAlI and sugrIva, is said to be the son of brahmA or prajApati (VI.67) and also, 5.the numeral seven (inherent in the word 'RkSAH') has been used in Rmn at several places. The hero of the Epic is rAma-candra, where the moon is said to be 'RkSapati (lord of the constellations)'. Linguistically, the word 'RkSapati' can also mean 'the lord of bears'. Bears, coincidentally, were also close companions of the Greek goddess of agriculture Athene (Biedermann, 1996), with whom sItA of Rmn has close similarities. (b).The role of magic and magical medicines in the Epic: In the Vedas, varuNa is the only god whose divine domain is termed 'mAyA' (Macdonnell, 1995), but, during the post-Vedic times, brahmA is also associated with 'mAyA' (Bhattacharya, 1969). It is probably not correct to identify the present country 'Srilanka' with laGkA (literally meaning 'island') of Rmn for two reasons: (i). It is said to be located on the mountain named 'trikUTa' [N 41], which is part of the divine domain of brahmA and, (ii) it may be a symbolic representation of a smaller 'mAyA (daityA mAyA)' in the sea of 'mAyA' of varuNa; who is also the lord of waters. On the side of rAma, the only magic demonstrated in the Epic is the revival of the dead through magical medicines [N 42]. The medicinal men (or beings) involved in this cure are suSeNa (said to be born of varuNa), and jAmbavat (said to be born to brahmA) [N 43], and interestingly enough, both of them appear as bears at some places in the Epic [N 44]. Association of bears with medicines is quite common in many cultures (Biedermann, 1996). jAmbavat also appears in another mythological story in a similar role in connection with the churning of the milky ocean. Interestingly, the bhRgus are well associated with medicines in AV [N 45] . (c).The story of vAlI: The kidnapping of the wife of sugrIva (said to be born of sUrya, the Sun god), by vAlI (said to be the son of indra), appears like a dramatization of the Rgvedic theme of 'indra stealing the wheel of the Sun'[N 46] . From the discussion given above, it is clear that Rmn is a creation myth explained in the form of a fanciful story, to glorify brahmA, the favorite deity of the bhRgus. Thus, the time of composition of the Epic is clearly post Vedic period. rAma, after whom the Epic is named, appears to be a fusion of 'indra, and candra'; but is subordinate to brahmA in his role, as he appears as one of the hands of brahmA helping him in his creative activity in this manifest world, although in a few passages in Rmn, he is compared to prajApati or supreme god [N 47] . In this context, it is interesting to note that the fish, tortoise and boar incarnations of viSNu of later mythology, are initially that of brahmA as prajApati, and in all these cases the final task is to rescue the earth goddess [N 48]. Here also we can see a similarity between the above theme and that of Rmn, where sItA is the daughter of the earth goddess and rAma appears as related to prajApati as brahmA. Thus, much of the story given in Rmn is of doubtful historicity. It makes it difficult for any one to claim that the dynasties mentioned in Rmn are of real historical value. The story at the most could have been written to glorify the dynasty of kosala. Acknowledgements: The author wishes to thank Prof.M.Witzel, for his comments on this article. Annotations 1. See, for example Thadani, 1933; Bhattacharya 1969; Bunce, 2002; and Murthy, 2003. 2. Brockington (1984) based on linguistic and stylistic datails, is of the opinion that the Epic Rmn has grown to the present status in five phases: 1st (37.1% of the text, 4th to 5th century BC); 2nd (34.1% of the text, 3rd C BC to 1st C AD); 3rd (24.6% of the text comprising kANDas I & VII, 1st to 3rd C AD) and the remaining portion of 4.2% of the text after 4th C AD to 12th C AD (and above). 3. The role of bhRgus in the amplication of the Epic is well described by Goldman (1977). 4. Jha and Raja Ram, 1998; and Krishna Rao, 1998. 5. See Gonda (1969), especially p.29. 6. RV.IV.57 and AV.III.17.8, 9 and sItA appears as a woman of wonderful beauty and wife of indra in kauzikasUtra (cf. Davane, 1995). Also, see AV. VI.30.1, where indra is described as the 'lord of the plough' (also see, Kharade, 1997). However, some caution has to be exercised as RV.IV.57 is regarded by Oldenberg and many others as late addition. Witzel in his comments on this article (private communication), is of the opinion that sITa just means "furrow" here, no goddess or woman is intended in these hymns. 7. RV.X.93.14 (also, see Macdonell, 1995). The word "rAma" means 'dark' or 'to please' (MWD) and is also said to mean 'water' in the RV (Mudaliar, 1983). 8. bala rAma and the sage parazu rAma of the Mbh always carried a plough and a battle axe respectively as their weapons: both of which are agricultural implements (Winternitz, 1996). Interestingly, in Rmn, rAma is addressed as 'rAma-candra', where candra, the moon is 'the lord of vegetation' (Apte, 1998). 9. The reader may also refer to: Gonda (1984, 1989). 10. The bRgus are sometimes clubbed together with the so-called brahma-rAkSasas who have contributed to the bulk of AV, and hence, the AV is also called as brahma-rAkSasa Veda (Pargiter, 1997; Dawson, 2000). 11. The myth of creation by brahmA is discussed in many of the purANas, including the oldest ones. The commonality of the occurrence of the same myth in all purANas makes us believe that it must have a common origin, which in all likelihood is as old as the AV. That the purANas exist check at the time of the AV is evidenced by the mention of them in some of the incantations of AV.XI.7.24; XV.6.4. 12. The citation shown in the brackets throughout the present article refers to Rmn (Sastry, 1962), along with the page number, unless specified otherwise. 13. Bhattacharya (1969) thinks that this cult was mainly considered as a religion of the asuras, after its suppression by the Vedic religion. The association of the numbers 4, 7 and 10 with this cult was very well described by Bhattacharya in his book and hence, needs no further explanation. He is also of the opinion that this cult is pre-Vedic in nature, and was later on accepted by the bhAgavata and vaiSNava religions. 14. See, AV.XI.7.4 and XIII.4.6. 15. The number ten is inherent in the names of the two important characters in the Epic, viz. dazagrIva (rAvaNa), dazaratha; the battle between rAma and rAvaNa lasts for ten days, the army of monkeys is said to be ten crores, ten is the number of years rAma spends in the forest of daNDaka, reference to ten directions at a few places in the Epic, reference to a tAla tree with ten crests located between the meru and aSTAcala mountains, performance of ten azvamedha yAgas by rAma and use of ten arrows at a time in the battles mentioned in the Epic, etc. 16. Whitney considers takSaka to be the primal brAman among the serpents. 17. See, Dawson (2000). 18. Many native scholars are of the opinion that 'brAhman' simply is the one who knows 'brahman' (through the Vedas) and as such, it does not refer to any varNa, especially during the vedic period. Interestingly, however during the puranic times, the descendants of brahmA are said to belong to the first varNa aithough there is a lot of confusion on this front. 19. For various opinions on the ten heads of rAvaNa, the reader may see p.15 of Brockington (1984). Brockington is of the view that they are metaphorical for his strength. 20. Mani (1975), quoting Kambar rAmAyaNa, tells us that the actual name of dazaratha is 'nemi'. He is named so as he had fought the demon zambara in all the ten (daza) directions using his chariot (ratha). 21. Seven are the kANDas of Rmn, seven storied houses, sevenfold notes of music, the theme of seven palm trees and seven RSis, seven councillors, seven seas, use of seven arrows at a time in the battles and seven courtyards in the city of kiSkindha etc. It is also interesting to see that seven of the beings are present in the final battle in the form of men. They are: rAma, lakSmaNa, vibhiSaNa + four of his followers. 22. The swan is a symbol of purity (Biedermann, 1996), and hence, is a symbolic representation of the soul and also of 'prANa'. Therefore, the seven swans represent seven prANas or RSis. They are also said in viSNudharmottara purANa to represent the seven regions above the earth (cf. Bhattacharya, 1969). In iconography, the chariot of sUrya is also drawn by seven horses (Nagar, 1995). 23. It can be seen by the fact that 4 X 7 = 28, the number of days in a month and 4 X 28 = 108, (the days of a season consisting of four months), which is exactly equal to the number of beads in the rosary situated in one of the four hands of brahmA in his iconography. Bhattacharya, (1969) cites the hymn AV (XIX.53), to show that the numeral seven is also associated with kAla, and hence, the association of this cult with that of brahmA. 24. The purANas state that brahmA sits on a four-petalled lotus atop meru, which is in turn supported by four mountains. meru is surrounded by four continents and four seas. Four different kinds of trees, four colors and four castes are always talked about in the context of its description. The king of yakSas, ie. 'kubera' is said to live around in this region with four of his followers and is also said to have four sons (see, for example: BP, BhP and Pargiter, 1997). Interestingly enough, in hindU mythology the time (personified as kAla) is devided into four parts: viz. four yugas, four seasons in an year consisting of three months each, four phases of the moon consisting of seven days each in a month, and division of the day into four parts (Bunce, 2002). All these characteristics are believed to have been adopted into the Buddhist philosophy and iconography (Bhattacharya, 1969). Bhattacharya points out that the Buddhist jAtaka, no. 95; is based on the cult of kAla and dharma, where the numeral four appears at many places in jAtaka tale, as 4-marvellous gifts, 4-fold army, 4-kinds of bricks etc. 25. They refer to dharma (virtue), artha (prosperity), kAma (love) and mokSa (liberation) (Khan, 1981). 26. This reminds us of the incantation in the AV.XI.4.22 addressed to the deity prANa (prajApati) by a bhRgu, which reads: "It (the chariot of the Sun) rolleth on, eight- wheeled and single fellied, and with a thousand eyes, forward and backward. With one half it engendered all creation. What sign is there to tell us of the other"-Griffith's translation. Though, in the above verse it is the Sun who appears as the deity addressed, one must bear in mind that the Sun and prajApati are some times addressed as the same. 27. kANDa I and kANDa VII, are believed to be later additions (Winternitz, 1996 and now Brockington, 1984, also see foot note 2). 28. This view is supported by the fact that the in the Buddhist version of the story named as dazaratha jAtaka (cf. Vaidya,1972), the brothers of rAma are not four in number and sItA appears as a sister of rAma. 29. It is interesting to note in the present context that Gehrts considers two of the four brothers are later addition to the Epic (cf. Brockinton, 1984). 30. According to Mitchiner (1982), the bear was regarded as a sacred animal throughout Asia and North America. It is interesting to see that jAmbavat, the king of bears, in hindU mythology is said to be born of brahmA in Rmn The idea of associating Ursa Major (the seven star constellation or sapta RSi) with bears, might have been brought to India on one of the several waves of Indo-European migration. For the identification of it with pitRloka and seven RSis, Mitchiner cites RV and the seals of Harappa that depict seven priests in support of his argument. 31. The idea of involving monkeys might have also originated from the vRSAkapi hymn of RV. X.86; and also, from some local 'monkey cult' the presence of which is mentioned in Jain literature (cf. Bhattacharya, 1969). Interestingly, the fourth (!) tIrthaMkara of Jain religion has a monkey as his totemic symbol (Bhattacharya, 1969). 32. See, Vajracharya, 1997. 33. The 'monkeys' are not later addition to the Epic as the names of the monkeys are mentioned in VI.27, 28; which belong to the 1st phase of the composition of Rmn If we follow the criteria of Brockington (1984). 34. Some scholars are of the opinion that by the end of Rgvedic period itself, especially in books IX & X of the RV, soma is identified with the moon (Macdonell, 1997). 35. The rainfall process is described in BhP (22.12-27), VP (51.14-20) and in other purANas as well. Although, it was noted that there was a relationship between the phases of the moon and the tides of the ocean, neither the concept of gravity nor the concept of earth's rotation was understood in the purANas. It is said (BhP.22.21), the two, viz. the moon of cool virility and the Sun of hot virility, sustain the world by means of their combination. 36. indra is both a rain god as well as a god of battles even during the post-Vedic period. In the present context, it is interesting to see that in one verse of AV. VI.30.1, he is called 'the lord of the plough' and the maruts, 'the ploughers'. 37. This comparison is justified because at some places in Rmn, for example VI.92, 267, lakSmaNa is referred to as upendra (viSNu) [and rAma is said to be indra]. 38. It is interesting to see in the context of what is said in the above footnotes, that rAma is said to belong to the Sun cult and sugrIva, said to be born of the son god, is his strong ally. 39. In this context, it is interesting to see the symbolism behind the comparison of monkeys and titans to mountains and clouds. According to Biedermann (1996), in most cultures, 'mountain' is a virtual universal symbol of proximity to God, and the 'clouds' are symbols of concealment of the mountain tops where the gods dwell and are also symbols of fertility. 40. He is identified as the 24th 'vyAsa' (arranger of the Vedas) in VP. 41. Mentioned in AV (IV.9.8, 9; XIX.44.6 and IX.8.2) as 'trikakUd' and interestingly, these hymns are all ascribed to bhRgus and bhRgu-aGgirasas. In the purANas, trikUTa is a mountain located around meru, the abode of brahmA. Griffith (in his translation of AV), identifies it as a high mountain in the himAlayas: the modern trikUTa located in Kashmir. 42. In the Vedas, varuNa is connected to herbs and is capable of bringing people back to life (Macdonnell, 1997). It is interesting to see that one of the four herbs brought by hanumAn, is 'mRtasaMjivani' which has the above property of bringing back people to life. 43. It is interesting to note that jAmbavat is not very much affected during the battle by the brahmA weapon used by indrajit. 44. See, RmnVI.24, where jAmbavat, suSeNa and vegadarzin are addressed as 'the leaders of the bears'. 45. Interestingly, the medicinal herb named 'vizalyakaraNi' in Rmn (see appendix I) is clearly mentioned in the verses of AV (XIX.44.2 and IX.8.2) ascribed to: bhRgu/bhRgu-aGgirasa. 46. The actual meaning appears to be the blocking of the Sun by thunderous clouds (Macdonnell, 1995). 47. Rmn I.1and VI.121. 48. Bhattacharya (1969) was of the opinion that it was a clear sign of the fusion of the mother goddess cult of Harappan civilization with the cult of brahmA. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------- Appendix-I: Details of the occurrence of the number 'four' in the epic rAmAyaNa. S. No. Context Ref. to Ram 1 Four are the sons of dazaratha - at many places. I.18; II.34-37; II.99 2 Four are the daughters of the janakas. I.72.142. 3 Four is the number of beings, involved in the final battle of rAmAyaNa, viz. men, monkeys, bears and titans. VI. 4 Four are the councillors of sugrIva. IV.13, 198; III.75, 159. 5 Four are the councilors / followers of vibhiSaNa. VI.16-17. 6 Four are the councillors of rAvaNa. V.49, 454. 7 Four are the advisors / companions of prahasta. VI.57,140. 8 Four are the councillors of bharata. II.100, 398. 9 rAma altogether kills four of the brothers of rAvaNa, viz. rAvaNa, kuMbhakarNa, khara and dUSaNa. III.26, 30; VI.67, 110. 10 All but four (rAma, lakSmaNa, vizvAmitra and janaka) are said to have collapsed with the sound of the breaking bow. I.67, 134. 11 The divine 'pAyasa' gets devided into four parts among three queens. I.16, 42. 12 Four are the miracle herbs which revive lakSmaNa and the monkeys. VI.74, 216. 13 Reference to four means to success. II.100, 398; V.41, 435. 14 Mention of four types of elephants. I.6, 21. 15 Mention of four tusked elephants. II.14, 197; V.9, 354. 16 Mention of four types of horses. I.6, 20. 17 Mention of four sons of kuza (vizvAmitra's ancestor). I .32, 71. 18 Mention of four sons of vizvAmitra. I.57, 115. 19 Mention of four types of RSis altogether in the epic, viz. rAja-, brahma-, mahA-, and deva- RSis. 20 Mention of brahmA with four heads. I.2; V.51, 459. 21 Mention of four regions. I.5, 16; I.13; II.82, 358 etc. 22 Mention of four oceans / four seas surrounding the earth- many times in the epic II.104, 405; IV.11, 190; VI.130, 368; I.5, 16; etc. 23 Mention of four castes many times in the epic. I.25, II.17, IV.4 etc. 25 Mention of four protectors of the world. II.16, 204; VI.93, 271. 26 Reference to four elephants supporting the four quarters of the earth. I.40, 85: VI.67, 186 etc. 27 Division of life into four compartments called 'Azramas'. 28 The room of rAvaNa is said to have four lamps on four sides and the carpet is described as earth with four corners. V.9, 355-359. 29 pulastya brahmA (grand father of rAvaNa) is said to be the fourth of the six prajApatis. V.36, 419. 30 rAvaNa was told by zUka & zaraNa that four of the foremost monkey leaders are assembled who are equal to the protectors of the worlds. VI.25, 61. 31 rAvaNa was quoted to have defeated four serpent kings (vAsukI, takSaka, zaMkha and jati). VI.7, 18. 32 Mention of four fold army of varuNa. VI.7, 18. 33 Description of laMkA: Four immense gateways and four long drawn bridges. VI.3, 6. 34 laMkA is said to have been built on a mountain with four fold defenses. VI.3, 7. 32 rAma meets four sages in the daMdaka forest. They are: zarabhaMga, sutikSaNa, agastya and his brother, idhmavaha. I.1, 5; III.5, 7, 12. 33 Altogether, four (?) sets of twins are mentioned in the epic. They are: (i) lakSmaNa + zatrughna, - like azvins. I.18, 45. (ii) mainda + dwivida, - born of azvins. I.17, 43. VII.37, 502. (iii) vAli + sugrIva (look alikes or twins?). VII.66, 96. (iv) lava + kuza (sons of rAma). 36 The number of mighty titan warriors killed by sugrIva is four! They are: praghAsa, kuMbha, virUpAkSa and mahodara. VI 37 It is said that only four monkey warriors (hanumAn, aGgada, nIla and sugrIva) are capable of crossing the sea by air route. V.2, 340. 38 Mention of 'svastika' mark, which has four arms (also, pl. see foot note*). II.89, 370; VI.130, 367. 39 Four monkeys named dadhimukha, sumukha, durmukha and vegadarzin; are said to have been born to brahmA. VI.30, 74. 40 Reference to vibhiSaNa sending four spies. VI.37, 89. 41 rAma is described to have four auspicious lines on the fore head, neck and frontal teeth. V.35, 414. 42 Mention of fourth watch (division of time of the day and night?). VI.128, 359. 43 The journey from kosala to mithilA is said to have taken four days. I.69, 136. 44 The chariot of indrajit is said to be drawn by four lions. V.48, 450. 45 Reference to army consisting of four divisions. II.79, 355; II.93, 381. 46 indrajit is said to be bestowed with weapons by four gods. V.59, 485. 47 It is said that there is no fourth refuge for a woman. II.61, 313. 48 Reference to four types of power. IV.54, 301. 49 Reference to four arrows been shot at a time at the opponents - this appears at many places in the war scenes of the epic. III.27, 59 etc. 50 Four titans at a time seize the monkey warriors- it appears at many places in the epic. VI.41, 101; VI.57, 140. 51 Reference to four armed God, nArAyaNa. VII.8, 397. 52 vizravas, the father of rAvaNa is said to be like unto a fourth fire. VII.9, 398. 53 Reference to the creation of four kinds of beings by prajApati. VII.35, 493. 54 Reference to the division of indra into four parts. VII.86, 600. 55 Reference to four days of time. III.15, 200; VII. 53, 538. * The 'svastika' is known in the Indian subcontinent since 3500BC. Initially it appeared on the Harappan pottery for ornamental purpose, but later by about 2700BC, it is visible on the Harappan seals. Thus, it is non-aryan in character. It means 'well being' in Sanskrit. But it is also said to represent four cardinal points and a circular or dynamic movement of universe. It is also related to the wheel of time and the recurrence of the seasons as discussed in section-I and hence, is a symbolic representation of the god kAla and hence, that of brahmA. Some Indian scholars (for example, Sunder Raj, 1983) interpret the symbol as 'su-astika', meaning a eight-edged (zakti) weapon of the vedic god pUSAN. Appendix- II. Four main creations from the body of brahmA (Bh.P,VP). Creation Born from brahmA's When discarded his body Prevailing part of the body transformation guNas Titans loins and vital breath night tamas Gods shining face day predominant sattva Manes mind juncture of the day and night pure sattva Human-beings mind moon light or dawn rajas sattva: goodness; rajas: passion; tamas: darkness. Appendix- III. Name of the monkey Details of the mountain with same name (MWD, BP, Bh.P). 1 RkSAH (father of vAli and sugrIva). RkSavat*, one of the seven kula-mts. of jambudvIpa. 2 AJjaneya (hanumAn) AJjanagiri*, located on the southern side of KailAsa in jambudvIpa. 3 kesari (father of hanumAn) kesari, one of the seven kula mountains of zakadvIpa. 4 sugrIva sugrIva, a mt. mentioned in MWD, but without details. 5 nala There is no mt. with this name, but it is the name of a famous king of niSadha mt. region situated to the south of meru. 6 nIla nIla*, a central range to the north of meru. 7 maiMdra maindras, Greek name for the mandara* mt. range (Bhattacharya, 1991) - located east of meru. 8 gaMdhamAdana gaMdhamAdana*, situated to the west of meru. 9 zveta zveta*, a range of mts. to the north of meru. 10 hemakUTa hemakUTa*, varsha mts. to the south of meru, part of northern himAlayas. 11 RSabha RSabha*, located in jambudvIpa east of the subcontinent kiMpuruSa- north of meru (south of meru in Rmn). 12 dvivida dvivida, located in the continent kraunca 13 kumuda kumuda, situated in the continent of sAlmala or plakSa. 14 jAmbavat (king of bears) (i). RkSavat*: as in entry with S.No.1 above, or RkSagiri (MWD). (ii). jambunada - a mt. mentioned in Mbh (III.139.16) in connection with mahAmeru (cf.Sorensen, 1963). 15 jambumat jambumat (MP). 16 caMdra caMdra*, one of the varsha mts. of kiMpuruSa in plakSa. 17 dhUmra(lord of bears), (brother of jAmbavat) dhUmra: east of the varsha mts. of kiMpuruSa- situated to the east of meru and west of kailAsa. 18 samarocana samarocana* 19 sannadAna or samnadAna saMdhAna* 20 aruNa aruNa - located east of meru and west of kailAsa. 21 gaja gajazaila? 22 dudhra/durdhara durdhara*: a mt. located in kuza dwipa. 23 gaya (i). gaya: a mt. range south-west of the city of Gaya (Bhattacharya, 1991); or (ii). gayaparvathaM (Mani, 1975). 24 suSeNa There is no mt. with this name, but it means 'beautifullly clustered' (MWD): implying a mountain or hill. *Also mentioned in Rmn, although there is a mismatch in the details of the location. 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Witzel, M. and Farmer, S.; Frontline (India), Vol.17 (20), 2000 and the subsequent discussions given in the same issue. =================================================== COLOPHON Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies ========================= Editor-in-Chief: Michael Witzel, Harvard University Managing Editor: Enrica Garzilli, University of Macerata Assistant Editor: Makoto Fushimi, Harvard University Technical Assistance: Ludovico Magnocavallo, Milano Editorial Board: Madhav Deshpande University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Harry Falk Freie Universitaet Berlin Yasuke Ikari Kyoto University Boris Oguibenine University of Strasbourg Asko Parpola University of Helsinki -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- email: ejvs-list at shore.net witzel at fas.harvard.edu http://www.nautilus.shore.net/~india/ejvs European mirror: http://www.asiatica.org or http://www.asiatica.org/publications/ejvs/ (©) COPYRIGHT NOTICE ISSN 1084-7561 The Materials in this journal are copyrighted. 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