http://SaturnianCosmology.Org/ mirrored file For complete access to all the files of this collection see http://SaturnianCosmology.org/search.php ========================================================== Lightning in astronomy - Preface E. W. Crew Introductory notes These notes were sent to many astronomers with a reprint of the following Nature paper, Lightning in astronomy. The distinctive white streaks in the penumbra of sunspots (see fig.1 of the reprint) have not been satisfactorily explained by any 'conventional' theories, nor have many other solar characteristics, including the observations obtained by the Skylab satellite in 1973. If only for this reason, I hope that the views expressed in my article will be of interest. /(Note added in March 1999. It is now accepted by most astronomers that the force of gravity explains most astrophysical phenomena and electrical characteristics are largely ignored. I consider that Bruce's work gives much more satisfactory explanations and I hope it will not continue to be ignored.)/ There are also many theories about quasars and the evolution of galaxies, but there is not a generally accepted view. The theory described in this Nature reprint is therefore no more unorthodox than any others, and should be judged in this light. Some theories start with the assumption of extensive magnetic fields of unknown origin, but the electrical discharge theory claims that these fields are produced by the discharge currents of accumulated static charges. The high conductivity of stellar and galactic atmospheres may appear to preclude the possibility of the segregation of electrical charges and the accumulation of static electricity as in terrestrial conditions, even where the existence of solid atmospheric particles is undisputed, but there are many sound reasons for believing that such processes are also possible and likely in astronomy. If lightning does occur on a cosmic scale, the actions of the discharge currents and their magnetic fields appear to offer a very reasonable explanation of many of the most difficult problems in astrophysics. There are no generally accepted solutions to most of these problems, so the ideas described in this reprint do not attempt to sweep away the results of many years of work by established astronomers. However, they may show that atmospheric electrical charging and discharging processes are well worth further study and detailed investigation. (Note added in July 2000. The evidence for electrical discharges is strong, but until recently there was not a satisfactory explanation of the process of separation and accumulation of electrical charges prior to breakdown. The Hungarian physicist and astronomer, Dr Laszlo Kortvelyessy, has now described a process of charging on an adequate scale in his book 'The Electric Universe' (Budapest 1998) in English and website http://www.electric-universe.de/ . His e-mail address is DrLaKy at aol.com . ) Any comments or criticism would be appreciated and acknowledged. Personal Comments I would like to make acknowledgement to Dr. C. E. R. Bruce (formerly of 73 Copthorne Road, Croxley Green, Rickmansworth, Herts.) for his stimulating writing and discussions on these topics and for his friendship since I first took an active interest in his work four years ago (1970). I am sure others with better qualifications than mine will one day pay tribute to his discovery of lightning on the Sun in 1941, for his powers of imagination in developing this brilliant idea to explain events in much more extensive atmospheres, and for his struggle to obtain recognition for his theory. notwithstanding periods of illness and the indifference or antipathy of many of those who should have been most interested. I appreciate the difficulty of astronomers in established positions who are unwilling to change their views until others in similar positions have done the same. This is a natural reaction, very well described by Sir Oliver Lodge in "Pioneers of Science" (Macmillan 1928). When Galileo claimed to have seen the moons of Jupiter in his telescope on 7 January 1610, "the news of the discovery soon spread and excited the greatest interest and astonishment. Many of course refused to believe it. Some there were who having been shown them refused to believe their eyes, and asserted that although the telescope acted well enough for terrestrial objects, it was altogether false and illusory when applied to the heavens. Others took the safer ground of refusing to look through the glass. One of these who would not look at the satellites happened to die soon afterwards. "I hope," says Galileo, "that he saw them on his way to heaven." I suspect that future astronomers will be just as surprised at those today who cannot conceive of lightning occurring in stellar and galactic atmospheres, and either refuse to read Bruce's work or say it is altogether false and illusory when applied to the heavens. A few others have looked through Bruce's theoretical telescope and have seen the splendour and violence of the electrical discharges. The Electrical Research Association, Leatherhead, Surrey, published Report 5275 (1968) which summarises Bruce's theory and gives an extensive list of references. Penguin Science Survey 1968 (Physical Sciences) published his article "Electric Fields in Space" and S.C. Coroniti, editor of "Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity" (Elsevier 1965) wrote, "Within the galaxies there exist cosmic electric discharges. . . . It is lightning, and the fact that it is many light years distance makes it no less exciting than terrestrial lightning". The idea that solar flares and related phenomena are electric currents, if not discharges, was clearly stated in "Nobel Symposium 9 - Mass motion in solar flares and related phenomena." (Wiley 1968), suggesting a value of over 1E11 amps (p193), compared with the value of about 1E5 amps for terrestrial lightning. G.Burbidge wrote that today, as in the past, views of cosmology are largely determined by the ideas of a few strong individuals rather than by an objective appraisal of the information available. His article was entitled 'Was there really a Big Bang?" ('Nature' 233, 36, 1971) and I suggest that if an objective appraisal of Bruce's theory is made, the answer to this question would be "No, there was a Big Flash!" One should add to this simple statement that there would be other flashes of many orders of magnitude. This seems to be a suitable reply to another question in the same article: "The major problem of cosmogony is therefore to understand the origin of the elements and the formation of discrete objects - galaxies and other compact massive objects." An atmospheric electrical discharge has just this ability. It compresses the gaseous material in its channel and prolonged discharges will synthesize the heavy elements in thermonuclear reactions. Then when the electrical charge is dissipated, the material will cool and condense into galaxies, or stars, or planets, depending on the scale. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ / Reprint of Lightning in astronomy by E. W. Crew (Nature, Vol.252, No.5483, pp.539-542, December 13, 1974) / Lightning in astronomy E. W. Crew /The author suggests that evidence for lightning on a grand scale in astronomy is most convincing. It might explain stellar flares, cosmic jets, quasars, galactic evolution, and much more. In this model, electrical charges accumulate in apparently highly conducting atmospheres./ Most of the characteristics of violent and sudden events^1 in astronomy can be explained imply in terms of well-established laws of physics if electrical discharges, similar to lightning, occur in the atmosphere of stars and galaxies. This entails the formation and separation of positive and negative charges of sufficient energy to produce electrical breakdown in gases which generally have far greater conductivity than the relatively cold and dense atmosphere of the Earth. Careful examination of the evidence for electrical discharges in astronomy shows l however, that these almost certainly do occur and therefore charging does take place. This was first suggested by C. E. R. Bruce in 1941, following extensive research on laboratory electrical discharges and lightning as a member of the Electrical Research Association. I do not claim to conform with all of Bruce's views, but this article should give an indication of the scope and value of the work. Details have been published in many letters in scientific and technical journals, but the description of his theory as a whole, essential for understanding these letters, has had rather limited distribution, mainly in a report with full references^2 , a chapter in a popular science book^3 and a conference publication^4 . The study of terrestrial lightning is full of uncertainties because of its unpredictable location and brief duration^5 . The immensely more powerful and prolonged discharges in astronomy should help in the understanding of the processes in our atmosphere. The key to many astronomical events is the typical characteristic of an atmospheric discharge: a very rapid rise to maximum current, a steep decline, then a gradual fall over a relatively long period, with in some cases a secondary smaller rise of current, such as occurs in flare stars^6 . Solar characteristics If electrical charges accumulate in the Sun's atmosphere until sudden breakdown occurs, the discharges and induced currents will produce all the high temperatures and ionised conditions which seem to most astronomers to prevent electrical charging. It is therefore advisable to examine more closely how charging could occur, instead of rejecting it on the basis of superficial appearances. The generation of charges is chiefly by the friction of glancing collisions between solid particles or liquid drops, much as in the Earth's atmosphere. Other processes such as splitting during solidifying and unequal size disintegration of drops with induced charges are probably also significant. Particles of high melting point metallic materials are formed at about 3,500 K and have been collected by rockets and Earth satellites^7 . The diffuse blue rings surrounding sunspots are visible evidence of the formation of large numbers of small particles. They must also form in intergranular regions at the base of the photosphere and then be ejected into the upper regions by the violent winds and powerful thermals present. Smaller particles are segregated from larger because forces acting on the projected area have greater effect on lighter particles. These generally have a preponderance of negative charge and therefore produce a surplus of negative electricity at high levels in the atmosphere. corresponding to a surplus of positive charge below^9 . The interactions of ions and free electrons with these particles is complicated, but it is likely that charges accumulate in the highly conducting atmosphere because the positive particles will rapidly capture free electrons. There will then be a surplus of positive ions which are far more massive than electrons and take much longer to neutralise the equivalent negative charge on the smaller particles, enabling the surplus negative charge to accumulate in regions remote from the positive charge zone. Hydrogen and other elements at this location and temperature are far from fully ionised^10 and the increasing voltage gradient due to the charges will eventually cause further ionisation, leading to electrical breakdown. The rate of charging will reduce as the voltage gradient increases, but the forces unleashed by solar activity are so immense that ample energy is evidently available for discharge conditions to be attained. At any given time there are several million electrical discharges in the photospheric region, each about 1,000-2,000 km long and lasting 10 min, causing the average temperature of the solar 'surface' to rise to 6,000 K. The flow of positive ions in the electromagnetically compressed discharge channels persists for a time after the charge is consumed and the hot gas ascends and extends above the extinct arcs, forming the white patches of granulation. Most of the particles are recycled, as in terrestrial meteorology, but some are ejected to greater heights, aided by radiation pressure, carrying charge with them and building up electrical energy in the corona. The resulting discharges are generally more sporadic and violent, such as long prominences, and these are observed to have the same velocity of propagation as terrestrial lightning, attracting other prominences like currents in parallel conductors. The electrical and magnetic influence of these powerful discharges destroy some areas of the photospheric discharges, forming sunspots, in which the magnetic field pattern is the resultant of the surrounding photospheric discharges and that of the flare above. It is unnecessary therefore to assume that magnetic fields are produced by some unknown process inside the Sun, especially as the generally held view, that the magnetic field is always vertical in the umbra of sunspots, has been disproved by observations^11 . The discharges in the perimeter of sunspots show as white streaks bent back by electromagnetic attraction towards the surrounding discharges. Jets from these discharges produce the outward flow of gas known as the Evershed effect, and their maximum observed velocity of 8 km ^s-1 agrees with Bruce's calculated value^2 . The photograph of a sunspot (Fig. 1) taken by the Project Stratoscope^12 balloon-mounted telescope clearly shows the white tracks of electrical discharges of a width less than 300 km, the limit of the resolution of the telescope^13 . It is of interest to compare this with the photograph of an annular electrical discharge in a boiler igniter (Fig. 2), which shows several remarkable similarities, considering the enormous difference of scale. Many peripheral sunspot streaks resemble the jets produced by a laboratory plasma projector. Fig. 1 Sunspot and granulation (Courtesy Project Stratocope of Princeton University. Fig.2 Annular electrical discharges in a boiler igniter (Courtesy Colt International Ltd., New Lane, Havant, Hampshire, UK) Bruce's theory explains many other solar characteristics in terms of electrical discharges and predicted temperatures of over 1OE8K in the corona a year before this was confirmed by observations^14 . He describes many cases of prolonged stellar atmospheric discharges, where the close correlation with observational evidence and similarity to lightning characteristics are most striking. It is an important confirmation of his theory that many planetary nebulae as well as galaxies have straight or spiral arms, evidently formed by discharges in which electromagnetic forces concentrate the matter in their channels. In planetary nebulae this material condenses to form binary partners and planets, while in the vast galactic discharge channels, stars and smaller nebulae are formed. The well known 'ring' type planetary nebula is only one of many different kinds, and if they all evolve in a similar way, then its shape is not that of an expanding shell of gas, but merely the result of a discharge jet happening to be in line, or nearly in line, with the observer. Doppler spectra characteristics show diametrically opposite jets in some of these nebulae. /(Note added in March 1999. This claim has now been supported by observations made by the Hubble telescope). / The theory that solar disturbances are caused mainly by the movements of charged atmospheric particles may explain why the level of activity in the Sun is so closely related to the tidal effects of the planets^15 . Small prominences and certain other solar features seem unlike any discharge process and may be caused by the varying magnetic fields of the large discharges acting on ions and charged particles, particularly when these are near the magnetic focus of deflected current channels. Galactic evolution If charged particles are ejected or repelled by the hot nucleus of a galaxy for hundreds of millions of years (Hubble stages EO to E7), a very extended charged atmosphere will develop with an immense store of electrical energy. The galaxy will then be poised on the brink of an enormous atmospheric discharge, in which a small increase in the voltage gradient would start a cataclysmic outburst near the nucleus and the jet would then advance far into the charged atmosphere. The initial main breakdown is likely to be initiated by the gravitational, electrical or magnetic influence of an active neighbouring galaxy, possibly explaining why some discharge jets appear to point in that direction^16 . This quasar' phase occurs at Hubble stage SO, the point of departure for three types of evolution (Fig. 3). The discharge would very quickly attain peak output lasting for a few million years, during which time a second diametrically opposite discharge would occur, set off either by the extragalactic cause of the original discharge, or as a result of shock waves from the first jet orbiting the nucleus and focusing at the antipodes. Both discharges then continue to extend far into the surrounding negatively charged atmosphere at an average velocity of about 4,000 km per s^-1 17 . Such a jet, with its myriads of discharge channels (similar to the few that are plainly visible in the great solar flare of June 4, 1946) would engulf a star like the Sun in minutes, heating the entire mass to thermonuclear temperatures and causing the short time variation of energy output which is observed in quasars. Magnetic pinch effects would also produce variations, but over far longer periods, as is evident from the jet of M87. An indication of diametrically opposite jets may be the difference in the values of the red shift of the nucleus, if detectable, which is the cosmological value, and the emission and absorption spectra of the jets, where there is a high relative velocity in line with the observer. The magnetic fields of the discharges extend to other galaxies, which frequently show the peculiar shapes caused by the impact of these powerful forces. Perhaps the reversals of terrestrial magnetism and other disturbances in our galaxy are the result of giant discharges in neighbouring galaxies. /(Note added in March 1999. As Bruce said when he saw this paper after it was published, my suggestion in the last sentence is obviously incorrect. But one could still ask, what is the reason for terrestrial magnetic reversals? Perhaps the physicist Peter Warlow has the right idea). / The channel of a discharge would acquire a powerful positive charge, causing free electrons in the surrounding atmosphere to accelerate towards it, attaining relativistic velocities in extensive lobes on each side of the nucleus, as the quasar evolves into a radio galaxy (after Ryle^18 ). Synchrotron emission by electrons in the extensive magnetic fields of the discharges would contribute to the total radiation. The flow of current following the characteristically 'brief' peak period of a few million years would be maintained by the collapsing magnetic field and the slower lateral current infeed from the surrounding charged zones. In straight discharges, matter from the jets then accumulates near the ends of the arms, as seen in NGC2859, but in discharges which are deflected by the field of adjacent galaxies or by rotation, the ejected matter continues in orbit about the nucleus, forming spiral arms. The intermediate Seyfert stage is illustrated in Fig. 3. A few cases are known where the spiral structure has apparently been formed by tidal forces If random major discharges occur in the absence of a single main initial discharge due to an external influence or rotation, an irregular galaxy is formed. The energy produced by the discharges is largely from thermonuclear reactions caused by high temperatures and electromagnetically increased pressures. No other known processes in astronomy can account adequately for the extent of nuclear synthesis required^19 . The energy was estimated by Bruce as 10E60 to 10E61ergs^2 on the basis of mass loss, which compared well with later estimates by others involving radiation measurements^20 . As in the stellar cases, many theoretical deductions by Bruce were confirmed by observations^2 . He has gone on to conjecture that strings of galaxies were formed as condensations in the universal discharge channels of the original Big Flash, and to predict that these galaxies have a higher content of heavy elements after their long subjection to thermonuclear reactions, compared with galaxies formed more slowly by gravitational aggregation outside the discharge channels. ** *Fig. 3* Galactic evolution by electrical discharge processes. A-C: Long period of slow galactic growth (lE9-1E10 yr) and increasing temperature of its nucleus, which repels charged particles and starts the gradual accumulation of electrical energy. B-C: Atmospheric voltage gradient produces small aggregate leakage current (vertical scale exaggerated) which is limited by the availability of free ions in a very rarified atmosphere. When the maximum value is attained at any particular time and place, the voltage gradient can increase without a corresponding appreciable increase in the leakage current (Townsend effect). The gradient is highest near the nucleus and falls approximately as the inverse cube of the distance (for a distributed charge). C-D: Eventually the increase in the electrical field causes electrons to attain the energy required to produce further ionisation, and catastrophic discharge occurs. This is the quasar phase (1), lasting lE6-lE7 yr. During this time opposite jets form (2). In about 3 per cent of galaxies irregular discharges occur (3). D-E: The extending discharges energise surrounding free electrons to relativistic velocities, which produce radio emission from extensive lobes (4). This is the radio-galaxy phase. E-F: The electrical charge rapidly diminishes and the lobes of radio emission contract. The regions surrounding the discharges cool and clouds of obscuring matter are produced. These absorb the energy of the high temperature core of the discharges and re-emit it as infrared radiation. This is the Seyfert phase (5). F-P: Charge continues to be collected from the galactic atmosphere, but the electromagnetically compressed discharge channels gradually cool and the matter condenses into the stars and planetary nebulae of the galactic arms. Some galaxies are distorted by impinging extra-galactic fields. G: The main discharge may be restricted by the pinch effect, followed by another burst of energy at a lower level. Periodic outbursts (not illustrated) may be caused by repeated charge-discharge processes, helped by the huge forces of the active phase. Validity of theory Although in recent years many astronomers have suggested the time is ripe for a revolutionary new approach to clear up the many problems in astrophysics, few have commented on Bruce's work, presumably because it cannot be properly understood without some knowledge of the characteristics of lightning and other electrical discharges. Bruce was in the unusual and fortunate position of having studied these subjects intensively, his publications earning him a DSc. He then concentrated on the applications to astronomy, and was able to do this without preconceived ideas. His position outside the accepted astronomical organisations has, however, made it more difficult for his views to become widely known. One objection is that his theory is not supported by any detailed mathematical studies, but until it is better known and understood, these are unlikely to be attempted. Perhaps this article will encourage workers in many fields of astrophysics to take a closer look at Bruce's work and to develop it in greater detail. If they will start by assuming it is possible for electrical charging and discharging to take place, then see where this will lead, perhaps the validity of their assumption would soon be established and C. E. R. Bruce would obtain the recognition he deserves. / (Note added March 1999. Bruce, born 19 April 1902, died 30 December 1979, did not live long enough to receive recognition for his work in astronomy). / References 1. Kahn, F.D., Nature, 242,156 (1973) 2. Bruce, C.E.R., ERA Report 5275 (The Electrical Research Association, 1968) 3. Bruce, C.E.R., in Penguin Science Survey 1968 Physical Sciences, 170-186 (1968) 4. Bruce, C.E.R., in Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity (ed. Coroniti, S.) 577-586 (Elsevier, 1965) 5. Uman, M.A., Lightning (McGraw-Hill, 1969) 6. Lovell, A.C.B. and Mavridis, L.N., Nature, 250, 124-125 (1974) 7. Hemenway, C.L., Hallgren, D.S. and Schmalberger, D.C., Nature, 238, 256-260 (1972) 8. Bray, R.J. and Loughhead, R.E., Sunspots, 65 and 123 (Chapman & Hall, London, 1964) 9. Crew, E.W., Electronics and Power, 18, 426 (1972) 10. Arzimovich, L.A., Elementary Plasma Physics, 3 (Blaisdell, Waltham, 1965) 11. Severny, A.B., Nuovo Cimento, 22 Supp. 428 (1961) 12. Danielson, R.E., Astr. J., 134, 294-288 (1961) 13. Danielson, R.E., Astr. J., 134, 289-131 (1961) 14. Bruce, C.E.R., Nature, 187, 865-866 (1960) 15. Wood, K.D., Nature, 240, 91-93 (1972) 16. Burbidge, G.R., and Burbidge, E.M., Nature, 224, 21-24 (1969) 17. Bruce, C.E.R., Nature, 184, 2004-2005 (1959) 18. Calder, N., The Violent Universe, 96 (BBC, London 1969) 19. Fowler, W.A., Q.Jl.R.astr. Soc., 15, 82-106 (1974) 20. Hey, J.S., The Radio Universe, 202-203 (Pergamon, Oxford, 1971) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Eric W Crew, BSc, FIEE, FRAS, 26 St David's Drive, Broxbourne, Herts EN10 7LS, UK. Click here to contact Eric Crew (Eric at brox1.demon.co.uk) HOME