mirrored file at http://SaturnianCosmology.Org/
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==========================================================
Qumran Timeline
Incorporating
Egyptian, Israelite, Assyrian, Babylonian,
Hittite, Persian, and Roman
Reference Timelines
[..]
Sources and Notes
NOTICE: This Timeline is undergoing some significant revisions.
o I've extended the range backwards to include current
scientific estimates for some very ancient milestones in
human and hominid pre-history. These are not dates in the
conventional sense, and I have designated these BP (before
present) to distinguish them from the more recent,
historical events; which should, in principle, be dateable.
To get an even broader perspective on the relative newness
of human culture, consider that the Earth is about 4.5
billion years old; that evidence for life on Earth goes back
about 3.2 billion years; but that life on dry land goes back
only about 500 million years (half a billion); and that the
earliest mammals make only a dim impression on the fossil
record until about 40 million years ago. Almost everything
of interest about human culture has happened in the most
recent one-quarter of one-tenth of one percent of the age of
mammals. On that time scale all the historical dates in this
timeline are late breaking news.
o The conventional Egyptian
timelines that I've been consulting contain a range of dates
for most of the dynastic periods. In this timeline, I am
using the low (most recent) conventional dates I can find.
Usually, these are the dates listed in David M. Rohl
's book, /Pharaohs
and Kings/, which he attributes to Kenneth Kitchen's /Third
Intermediate Period in Egypt/ (for Dynasties 21 to 26),
Kitchen's low chronology in "The Basics of Egyptian
Chronology in Relation to the Bronze Age," in /High, Middle,
or Low/, P. Astrom, ed. (Gothenburg, 1987) (for Dynasties 11
to 20), and John Baines and Jaromir Malek's /Atlas of
Ancient Egypt/ (Oxford, 1980) (for Dynasties 1 to 10). I
haven't been smart enough to spot the 60 year discrepancy
that Rohl says exists near the start of the 11th Dynasty, so
I am making no attempt to adjust for it. The process of
resetting all the dates here to match Rohl's dates is
currently in progress. I do not plan to take the additional
step of adjusting the conventional Third Intermediate period
dates as Rohl argues in his book, but I do plan to examine
the consequences of making his suggested adjustment.
o A few dates which seem to be very firmly established will be
marked with a light red background, as follows:
LIGHT RED BACKGROUND
o As time permits, I will be adding the non-conventional
Egyptian dates discussed by David M. Rohl in his book (see
below). To set these off from the accepted dates, they will
be inclosed in a violet background, like this:
VIOLET BACKGROUND
o Any number of on-line sources have been found containing
images of a few pharaohs. I am currently making an extensive
search for images that include either the image of each
pharaoh or his hieroglyphic name, or both. As time permits,
I will add these to the list of pharaohs in each dynasty.
The plan is to let each image here mark the link to the page
where the original of that image can be viewed. Most of the
images are not stored at this site, so IF an image does not
appear on this page, then the original site is either not
responding or has moved. When an image does appear, just
click on the image to go to the site. This is fairly time
consuming, so this process will take some time to complete.
See Dynasties 0 and 1 below for examples of how the work is
progressing.
Chronological Uncertainties
A good timeline provides, necessarily, information about the
timing of a limited number of points in time (coronation of a
king, eclipse of the sun, etc.) and the relative timing and
duration of certain extended events (length of a kingly reign,
duration of a war, etc.). The duration data is usually more
securely known than the date because it if often given in the
primary documents.
Placing the events in order requires some luck and attention to a
lot of detail, but that gives the next most secure piece of
information, the relative dates. Relative dates are very useful
because if the data include non-overlapping reigns, for example,
then their durations can be added to calculate longer time spans.
If their durations are not known, longer spans can still be
estimated using either an average reign length or an average
generation length. Both produce somewhat uncertain numbers, and
estimates based on either are necessarily uncertain as well. Still
in a few reigns or generations, one would not expect to be off by
more than a decade or so and that is often good enough to make the
estimated date worth having. But it is not the sort of date one
can use in making close calls that require accuracy of a year or
so instead of a decade or so.
Events with absolute dates are the most precious items in a
chronologists arsenal of logical weapons. They are rare and
valuable treasures. Fortunately, it is thought, not a lot of
absolute dates will be required if the relative dating is done
carefully and accurately.
The last of the valuable weapons in a chronologists tool kit
chronologists are synchronisms. These are also rare events (or
should I say the evidence for such events is rare) which bring the
timelines of different regions into direct contact with each
other. In the past these seemed rare even in the face of the logic
which suggested that the various empires were in more or less
constant contact. As absolute and relative dates have been refined
it looks as though there will be more evidence of synchronisms
welling up from the data. Furthermore, some synchronisms have
been, and others probably still are, hidden in the linguistic
differences between the various regions. These might also be
discovered with additional effort.
Interestingly, refinements in the chronologies improves the
ability of chronologists to identify new synchronisms and that in
turn allows them to refine their and our understanding of how
different languages are used to express the names of known places
and individuals. This means that linguistics (and all its
sub-specialties that apply to the study of written language) can
be used, in some sense, to verify or refute the chronologies that
are being proposed. This is becoming quite an industry. More than
ever before, the effective archaeologist or chronologist needs to
be conversant in a dozen or more archaic languages in order to
stay in the hunt.
Reigns of individual pharaohs and kings, or entire dynasties may
overlap, but if the historical record that comes down to us
doesn't provide that information then the chronologist is stuck
having to guess or argue in favor of an overlap. Otherwise, the
sum of his reign lengths is going to add up to more years than a
properly constructed chronology can hold. Alternatively, in the
absence of a convincing argument demonstrating the overlap, the
chronology will overestimate the duration of certain periods. This
can artificially extend the apparent duration of events in one
region relative to another. This coupled with linguistic
difficulties can effectively obscure synchronisms that would, if
recognized, have important historical implications. Serious
attempts to define where the overlaps occur are not guaranteed
success. A proposed chronology that seems to offer the best
resolution to the various lines of conflicting information may be
demonstrably wrong for some other reason which is not yet included
in the available evidence.
Using synchronisms between contemporary events, and a carefully
researched, and a fully documented and optimally accurate set of
supporting dates, the professional chronologists attempt to create
consistent and historically meaningful chronologies. There is
little certainty in the construction and no assurance that
tomorrow's evidence will not significantly upset it. Thus, it is
by increments, using logic and guesswork, that the chronologies
viewed here and elsewhere on the web must be understood. They are
transitory at their best and misleadingly wrong at their worst.
To begin, there must be some evidence to reasonably pin down at
least a few of the important dates. Between those most secure
dates it is always necessary to "estimate" the intervening dates
using one or more methods, each with its own level of inherent
uncertainty. Ideally, this strategy ensures that the estimated
dates are pinned down between the more secure dates and that their
relative dates are retained within the intervening interval. It
does not ensure total accuracy. It would be more useful if instead
of dates, we used date ranges, but even estimating the error of a
particular date is impossible. If the scientific errors could be
calculated, they would probably be so wide that the dates would be
meaningless.
To add to these complications, history comes to us in the form of
parallel isolated chronologies for separate geographical areas.
Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt are sometimes on the same timeline and
sometimes on separate timelines. It is not always easy to tell
which is which. Obviously, chronologies from Assyria, Babylon,
Persia, Greece, Macedonia and Hatti are built up from records
recovered from the cities in those empires. None of these
chronologies stands in isolation. To make the most of all the
available evidence, chronologists try to tie the various
chronologies together in order to work out the absolute dating for
all of them by combining the strengths of each. For this
synchronisms must be found between two or more regions that can
tie key events to a common moment.
To develop evidence of the synchronisms chronologists want and
need, they require data in the form of carved reliefs, written
documents, pictorial representations, etc. that can tie two or
more individuals or events together at the same moment in time.
Frequently, this requires additional analysis on the etymology of
the various forms of people and place names that appear in
different languages. It is entirely possible, for example, for
Egyptian and Assyrian scribes to write contemporary accounts about
a mutual war. In the absence of other documentation, it is
possible to mistakenly believe that the two accounts are of two
different wars because the names of all the people involved and
all the places where they fought are likely to be different in the
two languages. Sometimes the name differences are easier to
analyze than at other times. So there is always some concern that
the "current" chronology has some background level of missed
synchronisms, phantom (duplicate) events, and misplaced persons or
events.
A chronology should not be equated with history, nor should
history be confused with the events themselves. History is an
intellectual construct based on the available evidence and it is
as dynamic as the evidence. New finds can overturn a well
recognized history and any chronology derived from it. A
chronology depends on the same evidence and on the current history
of the times it tries to encompass. New evidence can always
undermine it. Reexaminations of the evidence can force a re-write
of the history and that will necessitate a revision of the
chronology.
Who's Chronology is this?
I am merely trying to follow and understand what others have done.
This chronology is not original; it is merely the current version
of my ongoing attempts to understand the events of the ancient
Near East as portrayed by the popular writings of the modern
academic authors. It does not provide a critical reevaluation or
reexamination of the fundamental evidence nor does it attempt to
re-verify the generally accepted chronology. It does attempt on
some small level to evaluate the claims by David M. Rohl
that a
significant reevaluation and revision of the Chronology of the
Third Intermediate Period in Egypt is now justified. His attempted
revision shortens the TIP and brings prior pharaonic periods
forward to more recent times. This revision, in his view,
radically effects the synchronisms that can be detected between
the biblical accounts of the Israelites and Hebrews on the one
hand and the pharaohs of Egypt and other powerful empires in the
region. It should be remembered that this is all subject to change
as I continue to study the evidence and revise my own views of the
evidence.
I have learned, too, that it is seldom obvious what is "generally
accepted" by the community of experts in this field. There is only
one truly well accepted date that has wide-ranging significance
for constructing chronologies of this region. That is the sack of
Thebes in 664 or 671 BCE. All older dates "sit on top" of this
one. It is a rather long stretch to extrapolate from this
relatively modern date to the third millennium BCE. And the
further a date is from this one, the more chances there are for
intervening errors to accumulate. ^14 Carbon dating,
dendrochronology and reports of unique astronomical sightings
(eclipses, for example) can provide some fixed-time reference
points with calculable error limits. Such dates can in turn be
used to begin the assault on estimating some of the other
uncertainties. I have not yet found any analysis of the type I
envision. Though as the evidence accumulates someone is bound to
take up that challenge, eventually.
From Relative to Absolute Dates
Professional archaeologists are trained to deal with ancient
cultures without committing to a specific set of dates. They seek
first to establish relative times based on identifiable layers in
the cross-sections they excavate through the sites studied.
(Astronomers use red-shifts the same way and for the same reason.
Absolute dates are too hard to come by.) The relative chronologies
can be analyzed, revised and corrected without committing to a
specific dating scheme. There will be time to worry about pinning
down the exact dates later after more evidence is available.
In developing a trans-regional chronology it is essential to
discover synchronisms between the sub-regions. Evidence of
correspondence between two kings, evidence of a meeting or a
battle between two kings, evidence that the daughter of one king
married another king are all examples of synchronisms. They serve
to tie a point on one relative chronology to a specific point on
another relative chronology. The more tightly one chronology is
tied to another via mutual synchronisms, the more closely the
intervening dates can be correlated to each other. This may allow
unrecognized synchronisms to become more apparent.
The Hebrew Bible is potentially an invaluable source of many
synchronisms between Canaan and its nearest mighty neighbors;
provided that it can be demonstrated to have a considerable basis
in fact. I am not convinced, however I am willing to use dates
that rely on biblical synchronisms provided there is at least some
independent source to back it up to some degree. Such uses have to
be studied on a book-by-book and almost on a chapter by chapter
basis. The problem with the Bible is that it has been around too
long and subjected to too much revision. In the literal sense,
archives buried and lost for 3,000 are more valuable to a
chronologist because their provenance and provenience are easier
to establish. Relative chronologies that rely on biblical stories
without independent corroboration have to be considered very
preliminary.
Because of their professional concern for establishing reliable
relative dates, calendar dates are probably more interesting to
amateurs than to professionals. Professional archaeologists,
egyptologists, etc. understand that the relative dates are closer
to their field data. It is the piece of the puzzle for which they
are personally and professionally responsible. Relative dating is
difficult enough. Absolute dates are always nice to have, but they
can be overturned by new data coming from an unexpected source.
The relative dates based on good field archaeology are more
difficult to refute and provide a more secure legacy for an active
career.
^14 Carbon dating has helped identify the absolute dates in some
cases, but it has its own problems; lack of dateable samples,
sample contamination, non-linearity in the changing ^14 Carbon
background, statistical uncertainties inherent to the method
itself, among others. The biggest problems with C-14 testing include:
o it is destructive (the same sample never gets analyzed twice);
o no one knows exactly what effects fires, bacterial/animal
contamination, soil leaching, and miscellaneous unknown
processes have on each sample;
o it is never "good" to much better than plus/minus 25 years
(that is more than just few pharaohs during certain periods
of Egyptian history); and
o its errors accumulate and get larger the older the sample gets.
Dendrochronology ,
potentially, offers much more precision, to within a year or two,
however it has statistical and correlational problems^1
,2
,3
,4
,5
,6
,7
,8
of its own and
it is not always possible to find a piece of wood that fits into a
known dendrochronological sequence. Even with the wood in hand and
a sequence within which to place it, there is often still some
difficulty in determining where it belongs in that sequence. The
atmospheric record based on the California bristlecone pine
tree-ring record is a notable exception. There the record is
complete and relatively clear for almost 8,500 years. Climate
changes reflected in the bristlecone dendrochronological record
have, for example, been correlated to volcanic eruptions, such as
the eruption of Thera, in the Mediterranean Ocean south of Greece,
now dated to 1627 BCE
,
plus or minus one year, based on the correlations between the
historically dated eruptions and the bristlecone pine tree-ring
record in California (unfortunately, the on-line archive at
/Nature/ does not seem to contain a copy of the original article
by V. C. LaMarche and Katherine Hirsckboeck, "Frost rings in trees
as records of major volcanic eruptions," /Nature/ 307 (12 January,
1984), 121-126). There is still some discussion and disagreement
even about this
date, however. For another alternative explanation also see
Michael G. L. Baillie
's abstract
for his paper presented at the conference on Natural Catastrophes
during Bronze Age Civilisations
held in 1997.
*BTW*: the Cornel University site
linked to the beginning of
the previous paragraph has links that will take you anywhere you
want to go in the world of dendrochronoly on the web. It is a
wonderful site which provides a good inside look at what goes on
at the forefront of research in this area today.
To add even more confusion to the situation, it appears now that
some Christian biblical research groups have already adopted this
new dating with
open arms. I personally like this date based on the type of study
that was done. But there is no reason to enshrine it, yet.
Correlations with other events in the region will have to be
discovered through careful field research not delivered by prophecy.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Anyone with specialized knowledge that supplements or
corrects this timeline is welcome to e-mail suggested
corrections and additions. Since even the consensus timeline
inevitably evolves, both with time and additional field work
by professional archaeologists, this one, which is hardly
professional or original, is, like every other timeline,
merely provisional. Which is to say it works well enough as
a baseline reference for my purposes. For others, it may not
work as well. All are welcome to consult it, provided
everyone understands that it may contain significant errors
or unwarranted speculation and may be revised at any time
without notice.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
This is a collection of the dated events which I've encountered
during my research on intertestamental Palestine. To begin the
chronology I relied on a few general sources to give the Timeline
a broad sweep and to give me some perspective on the relative
timing of the events I was reading about. I have since added
individual dates encountered casually during reading from a wide
variety of on-line and off-line sources. The diversity of sources
has resulted in a divergence of dates in many instances. For the
moment I am not trying to rationalize the chronology into a single
unified whole. (But see the notes above about using Clayton's and
Rohl's pharaonic dates.)
This Timeline and the included historical information are indebted
to numerous sources. Some of them are listed below.
o The original internet source was the on-line version of the
touring Dead Sea Scrolls Exhibit sponsored by the Library of
Congress and the Israel Antiquities Authority. Check out the
on-line version at either the Sunsite - Dead Sea Scroll
Exhibit
or the UNC - Dead Sea Scroll Exhibit
.
*For a critique of the touring exhibition by a well
respected scroll scholar whose opinion is independent
of the Library of Congress, the participating museums,
the Israel Antiquities Authority, and the current
International Team of Editors, see Norman Golb's
Letter,
dated January 14, 1994, to Ms. Melissa Leventon,
Curator of the Exhibit, and Mr. Harry S. Parker III,
Director of the de Young Museum in San Francisco, the
third stop on the Exhibit's United States tour. The
letter was reprinted in The Aspin Institute Quarterly,
v6#2 (Spring 1994) pp 79-98.]* For population information the main on-line reference site is:
o
The Historical Estimates of World Population
On-line sources for Egyptian Chronology include:
o
the King List
,
the Ancient History Timeline
,
a Chronology of Ancient Egypt
,
the EAWC Chronology of Egypt
, and
the History of Egypt
page. On-line sources for dendrochronology research and results,
o in addition to those mentioned above, include:
The University of Arizona Laboratory of Tree-Ring
Research . Tree Rings
and Volcanoes
by Nigel Bruce and Jim Hunt.
Tree Ring and C-14 Dating
Search the Bibliography of Dendrochronology
at the University of Arizona Some useful hardcopy sources (most published in paperback)
o include:
Peter A. Clayton, /Chronicle of the Pharaohs/, The
Reign by Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of
Ancient Egypt (Thames and Hudson, London and New York
1994, reprinted 1998).
Josephus, /"The Jewish War"/, G. A. Williamson
(trans.), and E. Mary Smallwood (revised with new
introduction, notes and appendixes) (Penguin, London
1981).
Geza Vermes, /"The Dead Sea Scrolls in English"/,
Revised and Extended Fourth Edition (Penguin, London
1995).
Norman Golb, /Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The
Search for the Secret of Qumran/ (Touchstone, New York
1996).
/"An Illustrated Atlas of the Bible" - Terrain Maps,
Photographs, City Plans, Diagrams, Time Chart of Bible
History, Gazetteer/, Harry Thomas Frank (ed.), Roger
S. Boraass (consultant for rev. ed.) (Maplewood, NJ:
Broadman Press, 1990).
Frank Moore Cross, /"The Ancient Library of Qumran"/,
3rd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995).
------------------------------------------------------------------------
*Note 1:* BCE (Before the Common Era) is equivalent to, but
used here in preference to, BC (Before Christ). CE (Common
Era) is equivalent to, but is used here in preference to, AD
(Anno Domini - Year of our Lord). These abbreviations appear
to be used interchangeably in many publications. These
abbreviations, as used here, always follow the year or range
of years. If not included, BCE should be assumed unless the
context makes CE the obvious choice.
*Note 2:* I've assembled this for my own benefit. I use it
like a notepad for questions, comments, and speculations
about historical events; many of which need further
clarification. All are welcome to look over my shoulder (and
make suggestions), but anyone using this timeline should
understand that parts of it will always be in transition
from one level of understanding on my part to another. This
is not likely to become a well unified Timeline any time soon.
I've relied on expert sources for the backbone, but I've
also included surmises which may upon further study turn out
to be wrong. The real benefit of such a timeline for me, or
any student, comes from assembling and studying it. While
this one is available for anyone to consult, the highest
purpose it could serve would be to stimulate others to do
the same for themselves. The benefits of working through the
details are enormous and eventually lead to a much better
appreciation of the nature, scope, duration, complexity, and
significance of the critical events that shaped the lives,
governance, conflicts, economies, and religions of the
people of intertestamental Palestine, in particular, and in
the Middle East, more generally.
*Note 3:* If you have a comment, question or suggestion
about any part of this timeline, please *send me your e-mail
*. When you do, please "copy and
paste" the appropriate section into your e-mail along with
your message so that I can find the section(s) to which you
refer with more certainty.
* Return to M.
A. Hoselton's Dead Sea Scrolls Resources
*
*/Top of Page <#top>/*
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ancient Timeline
Qumran, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Israel,
Samaria & Judaea, and Rome.
See also the Modern Timeline for Qumran,
Israel and Jordan available at this site.
*4.4 million BP*
Earliest hominids (precursors of human lineage).
*4 - 2 million BP*
New hominid species in the direct human lineage,
/australopithecus afarensis/, appears and inhabits Ethiopia,
walks on two legs and lives in social groups. (Johannson and
White)
*1.8 million BP*
Nutcracker Man lived in Tanzania; leaves footprints of one
family group in the ash fall from a fresh volcanic eruption
moistened by rainfall. Casts of their footsteps are covered
by another ash fall and buried for almost two million years
until discovered by Mary Leakey and her team.
*1.8 million BP*
/Homo habilis/ or tool-making man appears.
*1.7 million BP*
/Homo erectus/, erect man, mistakenly thought to be the
first bipedal hominid at the time it was classified, makes
its first appearance in the fossil record.
*/c./1 million BP*
/Homo erectus/ migrated to Europe and Asia.
*/c./ 500,000 BP*
/Homo neanderthalus/ diverges from the lineage that leads
directly to modern humans and eventually distributes itself
throughout Europe and western Asia.
*/c./ 200,000 BP*
The "Eve" hypothesis shows that the ancestress of modern
humans lived in Africa at about this time.
*100,000-40,000 BP*
/Neanderthal Man/, in Africa and Europe. Both groups had to
have migrated out of Africa through Palestine. There is no
other route for them to take.
*100,000+ BP*
/Homo sapiens/, wise man, appears. There is still
controversy over how much social interaction, ie
interbreeding and competition, existed between early /homo
neanderthalus/ and proto-/homo sapiens/.
*40,000-30,000 BP*
/Neanderthal Man/ in Europe is replaced by anatomically
modern humans; probably /Cro-magnon/ spreading out of Africa
into Asia and Europe. Neanderthals die out during this
period. (Recent analysis of Mitochondrial DNA now shows that
humans and Neanderthals probably did not inter-breed after
Neanderthals moved out of Africa.)
*c. 25,000 BP*
The Paleolithic period, beginning around 25,000 years ago,
brought climatic changes which turned Egypt into a desert.
The inhabitants survived by hunting and fishing and through
a primitive form of cultivation. Desertification of Egypt
was halted by rains which allowed communities of cultivators
to settle in Middle Egypt and the Nile Delta. These farmers
grew wheat, flax and wove linen fabrics in addition to
tending flocks.
*10,000-6,000 BCE*
The most recent ice age ends. Humans begin the shift from a
"Hunter Gatherer" subsistence, ie nomadic, life style to a
settled "food cultivating" and animal domesticating life
style in certain fertile regions (Western Asia; Egypt by
6,000 BCE).
The first indigenous civilizations in Egypt have been
identified in the south of the country through
archaeological excavations. The Badarian culture is the
earliest known developed Egyptian civilization based on
farming, hunting and mining. Badarians produced fine pottery
and carved objects as well as acquiring turquoise and wood
through trading.
* Return to M.
A. Hoselton's Dead Sea Scrolls Resources
*
*/Top of Page <#top>/*
*9,000 BCE*
*/c./ 8300 - 4500 BCE*
The Neolithic Period begins. The first permanent settlements
appear; the domestication of plants (notably wheat) and
animals (goats and sheep).
Neolithic Period, ca. 5450-3850 BC.
The Naqada lived in sizable settlements by about 4,000BC and
produced decorated pottery and figurines made from clay and
ivory which indicate they were a war-like people. Naqada
artifacts from 3,300BC show further development both in
terms of culture and technology. Evidence of irrigation
systems and more advanced burial sites, as well as the use
of alien materials like lapis lazuli, indicate a cultural
diversity and the development of external trading.
*5,000 BCE*
World Population estimates = 5 - 20 million. This is up from
the estimates of 1 - 10 million in 10,000 BCE. N
* Return to M.
A. Hoselton's Dead Sea Scrolls Resources
*
*/Top of Page <#top>/*
*/c./ 4500 - 3200 BCE*
Chalcolithic Period.
Predynastic Period, ca. 4500-3200 BC
+ Badarian, ca. 4500-3800 BC
+ Naqada I, ca. 3850-3650 BC
+ Naqada II, ca. 3650-3300 BC
+ Naqada III, ca. 3300-3100 BC
*4,000 BCE*
World Population estimates = 7 - 25 million.
Double Crown of the combined Kingdom of Upper and Lower
Egypt
Red
Crown of Lower Egypt
White
Crown of Upper Egypt
Throughout
most of its pre-dynastic history Egypt encompassed a
multiplicity of settlements which gradually became small
tribal kingdoms. These kingdoms evolved into two loosely
confederated states: one encompassed the Nile valley up to
the Delta (with the Naqada dominating) with Hierakonpolis as
its capital, represented by the vulture goddess Nekhbet and
the White Crown (/hedjet/); the other encompassed the Delta,
with Buto as its capital and was represented by the cobra
goddess Wadjet of Buto and the Red Crown (/deshret/). The
two lands could also be represented as the combined Land of
the Two Ladies (Nekhbet and Wadjet) and by the combined
Double Crown (/shmty/). Horus (gd) was the son of the
goddess Hathor and the god of Hierakonpolis in upper Egypt.
The two kingdoms vied for power over all the land of Egypt.
This struggle led to the victory of the south and the
unification of the Two Lands in approx. 3100BC under the
command of Menes who is also sometimes known as Narmer. This
was the beginning of the dynastic period of the Pharaohs.
Here is a map of Lower Egypt (see J. Nicols course
description at the University of Oregon
)
from a later period with the most prominent cites and
branches of the Nile River, for reference.
Map of Lower Egypt
Here are the maps of the 22 Nomes of Upper Egypt and the 20
Nomes of Lower Egypt for reference. These probably find
their identities in the pre-history of Egypt before
unification in the pharaonic period. Dominant families of
the Nomes maintained considerable power in their regions
even after the unification. In some nomes the priestly class
of one or more temple cults held or shared most of the
political power in the region. During some periods the
continued unification of Egypt depended heavily on the
cooperation and possibly even the consent of these regional
powers.
Map of the nomes of Upper Egypt
Map of the Nomes of Lower Egypt (the Delta)
Her is a map of Egypt with most of the major cities for
reference.
Map of the Cities of Upper and Lower Egypt
*/c./ 3580 BCE*
Mt Vesuvius erupts (Too early yet for dendrochronology to
pinpoint, unfortunately). Ghassulian culture in Palestine. *3500 BCE*
The *Egyptian Civil Calendar* and the *Great Sothic Cycle*.
See More Details about the Great Sothic Cycle
in a separate browser window.
*/c./ 3300 BCE*
Early Bronze urban culture in Palestine. C
* Return to M.
A. Hoselton's Dead Sea Scrolls Resources
*
*/Top of Page <#top>/*
*/c./ 3200 - 2200 BCE*
Early Bronze Age.
*End of the Pre-Dynasty Period*.
See More Details about the Pre-Dynastic Period
in a separate browser window.
*/c./ 3020 - 2650 BCE*
*0th Dynasty* (3020 - 2920)
See More Details about the 0th Dynasty in a
separate browser window.
The *earliest hieroglyphs* appear at about the beginning of
the pharaonic age.
See More Details about the five names of the pharaohs
in a separate browser window.
*3,000 BCE *
World Population estimates = 14 - 42 million.
With the beginning of the Bronze age, the baby boom really
got underway. The tools for conquest, a growing population
of fighters, and agricultural methods capable of supporting
large cities worth conquering were all combining to play
their roles. It is probably no accident that the events of
world history start to leave their traces in the form of
written records at about this time. Writing had to be
invented in order to manage the governments with rapidly
expanding populations and to handle the logistics of the
wars they inflicted on each other.
*/c./ 2900 - 2800 BCE*
*365-day calendar introduced.*
See More Details about the Egyptian 365 Day Calendar
in a separate browser window.
*/c./ 2900 BCE*
Egyptian hieroglyphs'
first appearance, other than for naming kings, I presume.
*/c./ 2920 BCE*
*1st Dynasty* (2920 - 2770)
This period is shrouded in mythology. Little is known
of Menes and his descendants outside their claim of
divine ancestry and that they developed a complex
social system, patronized the arts and constructed
temples and many public buildings.
The foundation of Memphis, the world's first imperial
city, is attributed to Menes. From Memphis the third
and fifth kings of the First Dynasty set out to
conquer the Sinai. During the First Dynasty culture
became increasingly refined. The royal burial grounds
at Saqqara and Abydos became sites of highly developed
mastabas.
*Hor-Aha*
("The Fighting Hawk")
Ivory label with Hor-Aha and Men (Nebti name) list
together
(/Ivory label found in the/
/tomb of Queen Nithotep/
/with the two names/
/Hor-Aha and Men in the/
/upper right. The Horus/
/falcon on top of one serekh/
/faces to the right. This/
/label must be read right to/
/left making Men the more /
/important name.) /
Horus name of Aha
/(The Horus-name of Aha, from a piece of pottery at
the British Museum.)/
*Men* (/nebti/ name)
* Aha
*'s
more common name, *Men
* (from Herodotus
according to Manetho), means "established." This may
be the source of the name *Menes* (M and TRC
)
attributed to the first pharaoh in later records.
Probably the son of Narmer, possibly by Queen
Nithotep. His Horus name of *Hor-Aha* means "fighting
hawk" and indicates his Upper Egyptian origin. The use
of the name *Men* as his /nebti/ name as ruler of the
combined Kingdoms is demonstrated by the appearance of
both names, side by side, on an ivory label found in
the tomb of Queen Nithotep.
One of *Hor-Aha*'s
major accomplishment was founding the capital city
Memphis. It's location, just south of the apex of the
Nile Delta, indicates the importance this geographical
and political center played in uniting and maintaining
the combined kingdoms. Memphis became one of the
greatest cities in the ancient world. Beginning with
the founding of Memphis, the Egyptian kings began to
construct their tombs at the sacred site of Abydos in
Middle Egypt, while the nobility constructed theirs at
Saqqara on the edge of the desert plateau overlooking
Memphis. There is contention about whether or not the
kings built at both sites.
His Queen may have been named Berner-Ib
(literally
"Sweet-heart"). Her name appears on a small label
found in a tomb near his at Abydos. Her name also
appeared on items from his possible-mother's great
tomb at Naqada. His mother or a wife (possibly his
principle wife), named Neithhotep is also known and is
shown wearing the the red crown of Lower Egypt. It
seems clear that he also has roots in Upper Egypt as
well as lower Egypt, either by birth or by marriage,
and that most of Egypt was united under his rule.
Manetho reports that he fought foreign expeditions and
won renown, but was killed when carried off by a
hippopotamus.
Manetho
lists his as a 62 year reign while the TRC lists no
reign length.
*Iti* (TRC
)
Simply listed in the TRC as "The King of [Upper and
Lo]wer Egypt It[i]". Could this be *Neithhotep*, the
queen of *Aha* listed as a ruler in her own right? It
could also be a son or brother who served as co-regent
but did not survive the end of *Aha*'s reign. This
king appears not to be part of Manetho's list, unless
it is Kenkenes, or Queen Neith-hotep, and the Canon
does not give a reign length.
* Djer
*
("Horus Who Succours") *Djer
* is probably
Manetho
's
*Athothis* (M), the son of *Menes* (M), and the
Canon's *Iteti* (TRC
),
credited with a 57 year reign (M) or a reign of 10+X
years, 28 days (TRC
).
His Horus name is consistent with Manetho's comment
that he was a physician whose anatomical works were
extant at the time /Aegyptiaca/ was composed. Manetho
also credits him with building a (the?) royal palace
for himself at Memphis.
* Merneith
*
(/Beloved of Neith/)
Queen Merneith's stela from Abydos.
(/Queen Merneith's stela from Abydos./) * Merneith
* was
Queen, consort of Djer, and may have ruled alone for a
time after his death. Alternatively, she may have
ruled only as regent during the minority of her son
Den. Finally, she might have ruled during both
periods. She is the first recorded female pharaoh of
Egypt. Manetho
does not
appear to mention her, although it is interesting that
he does list eight pharaohs and this dynasty includes
eight if she is included. The Canon does not mention
her.
Her name appears on a clay seal impression from Abydos
that gives the names of the early kings in order from
Narmer to Den. This confirms her status as ruler and
gives her the title "King's Mother", presumably of Den.
The remaining six names in Manetho
's
list are difficult to assign to the remaining known
pharaohs. Remembering that the first two might need to
be reversed, and including Mereneith, the simplest
pairings go like this (with source comparisons of the
pharaonic names and reign lenghts):
A modern Manetho's Manetho's Manetho's
list of pharaohs pharoahs pharaohs
pharaonic (Africanus) (Eusebius (Eusebius,
names from Syncellus) Armenian ver)
^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Narmer
Hor-Aha Menes 62 Menes 60 y Menes 30
Iti
Djer Athothis 57 Athothis 27 " Athothis 27
Mereneith Kenkenes 31 Kenkenes 39 " Cencenes 39
Djet Uenephes 23 Uenephes 42 " Vavenephis 42
Den Usaphaidos 20 Usaphais 20 " Usaphais 20
Anedjib Miebidos 26 Niebais 26 " Niebais 26
Semerkhet Semempses 18 Semempses 18 " Mempses 18
Qa'a Bieneches 26 Ubienthes 26 " Vibenthis 26
Assuming that Manetho
meant to
leave Mereneith off the list, if he even knew of her,
then either we are missing a pharaoh or Manetho
is simply wrong. Most assume the latter, but perhaps
evidence for a missing pharaoh will yet be found.
One alternative is to put Narmer back into the First
Dynasty, take out Merneith, and then assign Manetho
's full list
in order, something like this (though this is hardly
likely to be the final answer):
A modern Manetho's TRC Early Egyptologists
list of pharaohs pharoahs recognized only
pharaohs these 6 pharoahs
^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Narmer Menes Menes xx y Menes
Hor-Aha (Men)
Iti Kenkenes Iti Atoti I
Djer Athothis Iteti Atoti II
Merneith
Djet Uenephes Itiui Atoti III
Den Usaphaidos Semti Usaphais
Anedjib Miebidos Merbiapen Miebis
Semerkhet Semempses Semsem
Qa'a Bieneches Kebehu
/Usaphaidos and Kenkenes are thought by some to be two
names for the same pharaoh./
* Djet
*
("Horus Cobra")
Djet's stone stela from Abydos.
(/Djet's stone stela from Abydos./) Louvre Collection
Also known as *Uadji* or * Wadj
*, or *Itiui* ( TRC
).
Possibly Manetho's *Uenephes* (M) with a reign length
of 42 years. The Canon does not give a reign length.
His is Tomb Z at Abydos. His funery stela is one of
the finest early works of sculpture known and now
resides in the Louvre. Manetho reports that during his
reign a famine seized the land, and that he built the
pyramids near Kachome (Cho - Eusebius Armenian version).
* Den
*
("Horus who Strikes")
Ivory Label of Den from Abydos
(/Ivory label of Den from Abydos./) Also known as
*Udimu* or *Semti* (TRC
).
Possibly Manetho's *Usaphaidos* and/or *Kenkenes*. His
Throne Name was *Semti* (TRC), titled King of the Two
Lands (/nsw-bt/). *Den
* has been
identified with a king from the Abydos King List named
*Hesepti*. This name can then be identified via the
Canon's *Semti* with Manetho
's
*Usaphaidos* who reigned for 20 years. The Canon does
not give a reign length.
The Palermo Stone
appears to record the last 14 years of his reign,
though the king's name is missing. Assigning the
subsequent records on the Palermo Stone to the reigns
of his successors depends entirely on the validity of
this particular correlation. Their names and order of
reigns, on the other hand, are known with more
certainty because they appear in an inscription on a
stone vase from the galleries beneath the step pyramid
at Saqqara. This sequence of rulers has also been
confirmed by a list given on a clay seal from Abydos.
His chancellor was Hemaka, whose tomb at Saqqara (no.
3035) was originally assigned to Den. This tomb was
excavated by W. B. Emery in 1935. Emery also examined
a large tomb at Giza which, based on architectural
similarity, he considered likely to be that of Den's
Queen. Her name is unknown.
* Anedjib
*
("Safe is His Heart") If we identify * Anedjib
* as Manetho
's
*Miebidos* (26 years) or as *Merbiapen* (74 years, TRC
).
In the Canon the year symbol and the number are both
clear, but what is not clear is whether this refers to
the reign or lifetime. In all these early pharaohs,
the Canon could be referring to age at death. This
seems especially likely since most of them are so
long. They could also be mythic reign lengths. He is
recorded on the Saqqara King List as a Thinite King
(and assumed, therefore, to be from This). There seems
to be some unspecified evidence for struggle between
north and south.
His tomb at Abydos is among the smallest and worst
built of the royal tombs.
* Semerkhet
*
("Thoughtful Friend") * Semerkhet
* ruled for 9 years
according to the Palermo Stone, or 18 years according
to Manetho
;
as *Semempsis* (M), or for 72 (reign? or lifetime?)
years as *Semsem* (TRC
).
It has been suggested the he was a usurper of
*Anedjib*'s throne. He erased the name of his
predecessor from many stone vases where it should have
appeared below *Semerkhet*'s and *Semerkhet* himself
was omitted from the Saqqara King List. Manetho
reports that during his reign there were many portents
and that a very great calamity (a "pestilence" in
Eusebius' Armenian version) befell Egypt.
* Qa'a
*
or *Kaa*
("His Arm is Raised")
Qa'a and Horus
(/Qa'a wearing the white crown of the south and
embraced by falcon-headed Horus./) Louvre Museum. He
may have reigned for 26 years (M). The uncertainty
arises because Manetho
lists
*Bieneches* as the last king of this dynasty. That
hardly equates to *Qa'a* in any known linguistic
sense. He is also known as *Kebehu* who ruled for 63
years ( TRC
).
The Canon uses a large dot (sometimes translated as
/idem/) apparently to indicate a repeat of the symbol
for "years" above, but it is still not clear if this
should be read as reign length or lifetime. Two
fragmented stele were found by Petrie on the east side
of his tomb at Abydos bearing his full Horus name in a
/serekh/. A stela of his, now in the Louvre, assumed
to be from Abydos as well, shows him wearing the white
crown of the south and embraced by falcon-headed
Horus. The white crown also forms part of his name
(*Qa'a-hedjet*) in the /serekh/ above the heads of the
two figures. This has been taken by some as a symbol
of the final victory of Upper Egypt over Lower Egypt
during his reign.
*/c./ 2800 - 2360 BCE*
Sumarian (Persian) city states formed along the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers. */c./ 2770 BCE*
*2nd Dynasty* (2770 - 2650)
The Second Dynasty was characterized by regional
disputes and a decentralization of Pharaonic
authority, a process which was only temporarily halted
by the Pharaoh Raneb. These regional contentions were
very likely the outcome of the unresolved conflict
between the two deities Horus in the south and Seth in
the Delta. Theistic rivalry seems to have been
resolved by Khasekhem, the last Pharaoh of the Second
Dynasty.
Unusual for a change of dynasty, these kings are also
said to be from This (or Thinis in some renditions),
near Abydos, and are called Thinite Kings by Manetho
.
He lists nine 2nd Dynasty Pharaohs which are assigned
to the known five (or six) as follows:
Hetepsekhemwy = Boethos (M) 38 years
Reneb = Kaiechos (M) 39 "
Nynetjer = Binothris (M) 47 "
Seth-Peribsen = Tlas (M) 19 "
= Sethenes (M) 41 "
= Chaires (M) 17 "
= Nephercheres (M) 25 "
(Khasekhem?) = Sesokhris (M) 48 "
Khasekhemwy = Huzefa (M) 30 "
There is no archeological evidence for the other three
(or four in those versions which hold that *Khasekhem*
and *Khasekhemwy* are the same person) pharaohs on
Manetho 's
list.
Since it appears that Khasekhemwy is the son of
*Seth-Peribsen*, he would have been at least 53 before
becoming pharaoh if his predecessor ruled for 48
years, but there is then no room for the three missing
pharaohs to fit into his one lifetime if all reigns
are consecutive.
The three missing pharaohs might be reconciled if
there were overlapping rules in different parts of the
country. If so, the secession was allowed to continue
for a surprisingly long time.
On the other hand, these three may have been priestly
claimants to the religious authority of the pharaoh
who also took the pharonic title, at least in the
priestly records consulted by Manetho
.
Some hint of such a struggle appears in the fact that
*Sekhemib* dropped his Horus name in favor of a Seth
name. Perhaps this indicates that the followers of
Seth seized the upper hand in a religious struggle
during his reign. Significantly, *Khasekhemwy*'s
/serekh/ is topped by both the Horus-bird and the
Seth-animal, indicating, perhaps, a reuniting of the
two contending parties in his reign.
*Hetepsekhemwy*
("Pleasing in Powers") His name is sometimes spelled
*Hotepsekhemwi*. Also known as *Baw-netjer* (TRC
)
who ruled for 95 years. Again the Canon uses the
/idem/ to indicate a repeat of the year without
clarifying the reign or lifetime question.
*Reneb*
("Re is the Lord") Also known as *Kakaw* (TRC
),
but the Canon doesn't include any year formula for
this pharaoh.
*Nynetjer*
("Godlike") Also known as *Banetjer* (TRC
)
who ruled for 95 years. The /idem/ is missing or
unreadable in the Canon and the reign lenght versus
lifetime question remains unanswered.
*Seth-Peribsen*
(Seth name "Hope of all Hearts") He came to the
throne with the Horus name *Sekhemib* ("Powerful in
Heart"). A /lacuna/ in the Canon has been been
partially read as the sign for the sound "s", which
some have taken as an indication that the name
*Wadjnes* is missing. This name is known from other
king lists and is assumed by some to be another name
for *Seth-Peribsen*/*Sekhemib*. In the Canon the
number of years looks like 54 to me, and no /idem/ is
legible, so the question of reign length versus
lifetime remains open.
*Sethenes* (M) Also known as *Sened* (TRC
).
He is listed as having a reign of either 41 years (M)
or 70 years (TRC
),
and the question of reign length vesus lifetime is
still unanswered. He is not known from any
contemporary source.
*Nephercheres* (M) *Aaka* (?) (TRC
),
although some have interpreted this as an error in the
Canon which should either *Neferka* or *Ankhka*. His
reign length if he is Manetho
's
Neferkheres is listed as 25 years (M). The Canon does
not mention a reign length for this pharaoh. He is not
known from any contemporary source.
*Sesokhris* (M) *Neferkasokar* (TRC
)
with a reign length of either 46 years (M) or 8 years
3 months (TRC
).
The /idem/ appears twice in the Canon, once on either
side of the "3", implying that, originaaly, the
numbers of days or his lifetime might have been
included or intended next. Not known from any
contemporary source.
(*Khasekhem(?)* or possibly, but not necessarily very
likely, Manetho
's
Chaires in a different order. The Canon scribe wrote
*"Erased"* (TRC
)
for the name when he could not read it on the original
document he was consulting. Depending on how it should
be read, the reign length is probably either 1 year, 8
months, 4 days (TRC
)
or 8 years 4 months (TRC
).
The inclusion of his life time, listed as 34 years, is
based on the same formula being used for Djoser a
couple of lines later.
*Khasekhemwy*
(Horus/Seth name:
"The Two Powerful Ones appear") Also known as *Bebti*
(TRC
)
with a reign length of 27 years, 2 months, 1 day, (TRC
),
and his age given as 40 + x years (TRC
).
Inclusion of his age is based on the same formula used
in the (TRC
)
for *Djoser* a couple of lines later, but is indicated
here only by the use of what is assumed to be a
repetition mark. He apparently married a northern
princess named Nemathap, who is titled "The
King-bearing Mother", in order to cement the two
kingdoms. She is considered the founding mother of the
following 3rd Dynasty.
*/c./ 2650 BCE*
*OLD KINGDOM* (2650 - 2152)
The age of Pyramid builders. The pyramids of Giza and
Dahshur were built during this period. Some date this
era to the beginning of the 2nd Dynasty.
*3rd Dynasty* (2650 - 2575)
Use of the cartouche to enclose royal names first
appears during this dynasty. The Turin Royal Canon
also uses the cartouche for the earlier names,
however, since it was clearly written at a much later
period, those cartouches are merely updated versions
of the orginal /serekh/ based names.
*Sanakhte*
("Strong Protection") Also known as *Nebka* (2650 -
2630)
*Netjerikhet*
("Divine of the Body")
Step Pyramid Complex
/ Step Pyramid complex of King Djoser at Sakkara/
Also known as *Djoser* (*Zoser*)or *Djoser-it* ( TRC
)(2630
- 2611) Step pyramid at Sakkara (Imhotep was his
architect)
Djoser
At right is the life-size statue of Djoser found in
the /serdab/ of his pyramid complex. Cairo Museum.
*Sekhemkhet*
("Powerful in Body") Also known as *Djoser Teti*
(2611 - 2603)
*Khaba*
("The Soul Appears") (2603 - 2599)
*Huni*
("The Smiter") (2599 - 2575)
*Huni* may have been the pharaoh responsible for
starting, if not also finishing, the Pyramid at
Meidum. Snefru is usually credited with building three
pyramids, including this one, but there are doubts
that one pharaoh built all three. No pharaoh was every
buried in the pyramid, apparently. The surrounding
temple complex, and presumably the pyramid itself seem
to have survived until at least the 18th Dynasty based
on a graffito at the site.
Guardian's Meidum Copyright (c) 1997 Andrew Bayuk,
All Rights Reserved
*/c./ 2575 BCE*
*4th Dynasty* (2575 - 2467)
*Snefru*
(Birth name: "He of Beauty") Also known as *Sneferu*,
*Snofru*, *Soris* (M) (2575 - 2551). He was the son of
*Huni* and minor wife Meresankh I. He married
Hetepheres I (probably his half-sister by *Huni* and a
more senior queen, who therefore carried the royal
blood line, but whose name is unknown). This marriage
was required in order to maintain the matrilineal line
of descent. Anyone else who might have married her
would have had a better claim to their father's throne
than *Snefru* himself.
Bent Pyramid
(The Bent Pyramid of Snefru at Dashur)
*Khufu*
(Birth name: "Protected by [Khnum]") Also known as
*Cheops/Kheops* (Greek), *Suphis I* (M) (2551 - 2528).
Son of *Snefru* and Hetepheres I. Great Pyramid at Giza
The Great Pyramid of Giza
(The Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza)
*Djedefre*
(Birth name: "Enduring like Re") Also known as
*Djedefra*, *Redjedef*, *Radjedef* (2528 - 2520)
*Khafre*
(Birth name: "Appearing like Re")
Diorite sculpture of Khafre
Also known as *Khafra*, *Rakhaef*,
*Chephren*/*Khephren* (Greek), *Suphis II* (M) (2520 -
2494) Second Pyramid at Giza and Sphinx
*Menkaure*
(Birth name: "Eternal like the Souls of Re") Also
known as *Menkaura*, *Mycerinus*/*Mykerinus* (Greek),
*Mencheres* (M) (2490 - 2472) Third Pyramid at Giza
Mykerinos
At right is the slate triad of *Menkaure* wearing the
white crown, flanked by the goddess Hathor, with the
sun's disk and cow's horns headress, and by the
personification of the Hathor name, with her nome sign
on her head. Both ladies have the face of *Menkaure*'s
queen, Khamerernebty II.
*Shepseskaf*
(Birth name: "His Soul is Noble") (2472 - 2467)
*/c./ 2500 - 2300 BCE*
Amorite invasions of Palestine. */c./ 2465 BCE*
*5th Dynasty* (2465 - 2323)
*Userkaf* *Userkaf* (2465 - 2458)
*Sahure* *Sahure *(2458 - 2446)
*Neferirkare* *Neferirkare Kakai *(2446 - 2426)
*Shepseskare* *Shepseskare Ini* (2426 - 2419)
*Neferefre* *Raneferef* (2419 - 2416)
*Niuserre* *Niuserre Izi* (2416 - 2392)
*Menkauhor* *Menkauhor* (2396 - 2388)
*Djedkare* *Djedkare Izezi* (2388 - 2356)
*Unas* *Wenis* (2356 - 2323)
* Return to M.
A. Hoselton's Dead Sea Scrolls Resources
*
*/Top of Page <#top>/*
*/c./ 2360 BCE*
Beginning of the Akkadian Empire (Persia). Sargon I
(2360-2305 BCE) of Akkad. Approximate beginning of the Early
Bronze Age IV (2300-2100 BCE). */c./ 2354 - 2345 BCE*
Possibly the oldest dendrochronolically dated eruption,
Hekla 4 in
Iceland. There is some speculation about this eruption's
possible role in sparking the beginnings of the Bronze Age,
coming, possibly only coincidentaly, as it does so close to
the beginning of that age as determined by other methods.
The whole topic area of the effects of climate on tree ring
growth and the inverse problem of estimating climate from
ancient tree rings data are widely discussed, as one summary
essay suggests.
*2350 - 2075*
Some evidence
suggests that this was a period of extreme climate change in
which a drying climate caused major population shifts along
with the drought-like conditions evidenced throughout
Western Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, and North Africa. It
is further suggested that this climate change sparked the
end of the Early Bronze Age. Dropping lake levels, including
a large decrease in the Nile flood, may have caused to the
turbulant political situation which produced the First
Intermediate Period in Egypt. The return to a more normal
climate at around 2000-1900 is then used to explain the
return to the more stable political organization that marked
the appearance of the Middle Kingdom.
This may have occurred in two phases. The first, around
2350, may have induced some early problems which were not by
themselves so devastating. The second phase, from about 2200
to 2000, may have been much more severe.
*/c./ 2323 BCE*
*6th Dynasty* (2323 - 2152)
*Teti* *Teti* (2323 - 2291)
*Pepi I* *Pepy I (Meryre)* (2289 - 2255)
*Merenre* *Merenre Nemtyemzaf* (2255 - 2246)
*Pepi II* *Pepy II (Neferkare)* (2246 - 2152)
Some sources mention two more pharoahs at the end of
this Dynasty.
*Merenre II* Probably the son of *Pepi II* and Neith.
*Queen Nitocris* Thought to be the wife of *Merenre
II*. Manetho describes her as braver than all the men
of her time, the most beautiful of all women, with
fair skin and red cheeks. No archaeological evidence
for her reign has been found, nor for Herodotus' story
that she avenged the assasination of her brother (Teti
I?) by tricking the murders into drowning before
herself commiting suicide.
The Turin Royal Canon
,
in column IV , lines 16 to 17
,
has been interpreted as reading that this dynasty
ended 955 years, 10 days after the beginning of Menes
reign, which is a bit off from the 769 years given in
this chronology.
* Return to M.
A. Hoselton's Dead Sea Scrolls Resources
*
*/Top of Page <#top>/*
*/c./ 2150 BCE*
*FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD *(2150 - 1986)
This was a very turbulent period. The centralized
government collapsed. Many pharaohs claimed
overlapping parts of Egypt and had overlapping reigns.
Mentuhotep I (sometimes mistakenly referred to
Mentuhotep II) eventually imposed order in 1986 BCE
and established his capital at Thebes, thereby
reuniting the thrones of Upper and Lower Egypt.
*7th and 8th Dynasties* (2150 - 2135)
*Wadjkare*
*Qakare Iby*
*/c./ 2135 BCE*
*9th and 10th Dynasties* (2135 - 1986) *(Herakleopolitan)*
Approximate beginning of the Middle Bronze Age I
(2100-1900 BCE).
*Meryibre Khety*
*Merykare*
*Kanrferre*
*Nebkaure Akhtoy*
*/c./ 2080 BCE*
*11th Dynasty* (2080 - 1986) *(Theban)*
Mostly Theban nomarks until the victory of *Mentuhotep
I* over the northern monarchs (9th and 10th Dynasties)
who ruled from the Faiyum. His victory in 1986 and the
resultant reunification of the two lands marks the
beginning of the Middle Kingdom (1986 - 1937).
*Intef I* or *Inyotef* *Sehertawy* (2080 - 2064)
*Intef II* or *Inyotef* *Wahankh* (2064 - 2015)
*Intef III* or *Inyotef* *Nakhjtnebtepnefer* (2015 -
2007)
*Mentuhotep I* *Nebhetepre* (2007 - 1986)
*2,000 BCE*
World Population estimates = 27 - 67 million.
In the first half of this millennium begins the oral
tradition surrounding Abraham and the sojourn in Egypt. The
solar calendar is developed and adopted in Egypt. */c./ 1986 BCE*
*MIDDLE KINGDOM *(1986 - 1759)
This period is characterized by extensive
international commerce and enormous building projects.
The era is also known for its refinement in jewelry
design. Economic prosperity and an artistic
renaissance persisted for a long time until Egypt was
again, eventually, wracked by internal problems.
*Mentuhotep I* reunited Egypt by overthrowing his 10th
Dynasty rivals.
*11th Dynasty* (1986 - 1937), continuation
*Mentuhotep I*
Mentuhotep I
*Nebhetepre* (1986 - 1956) following his victory over
the northern 9th and 10th Dynasties
*Mentuhotep II* *Sakhkare* (1956 - 1944)
*Mentuhotep III* *Nebtawyre* (1944 - 1937)
*/c./ 1950 BCE*
Fall of Ur. M
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*/c./ 1937 BCE*
*12th Dynasty* (1937 - 1759)
Beginning of Middle Bronze Age II A (1900-1700 BCE).
*Amenemhet I* *Amenemhat I (Sehetepibre)* (1937 -
1908) Reunited Egypt by overthrowing his 10th Dynasty
rivals.
*Senusret I*
Sesostris I
/Sesostris I/
*Senwosret I (Kheperkare)* (1917 - 1872)
*Amenemhet II* *Amenemhat II (Nubkaure)* (1875 - 1840)
*Senusret II* *Senwosret II (Khakheperre)*> (1842 -
1836)
*Senusret III*
Sesostris III
/Sesostris III/ *Senwosret III (Khakaure)* (1836 - 1817)
Seated Statue of Sesostris III
A comparison of the face at left with the face on his
seated statue
in the Louvre (at right) suggests that these provide a
very good likeness of the man himself. The heavy
lidded eyes and the size and shape of the ears plus
the overall shape and expression of the face show
remarkable artistic attention to detail and presumably
to accuracy.
*Amenemhet III*
Granite Sculpture of Amenemhet III
*Amenemhat III (Nimaatre)* (1817 - 1772), He is also
called King Moeris by Herodotus; built Nile-flood
catchment at Faiyum and Labyrinth at Hawara.
Statuette of Amenemhat III
(/Statuette of Amenemhat III - Louvre Collection/)
*Amenemhet IV* *Amenemhat IV (Maakherure)* (1772 - 1763)
*Queen Sobeknerfu* *Neferusobek (Sobekkare)* (1763 -
1759)
*/c./ 1850 BCE* Abraham leaves Mesopotamia for Canaan (Gen 12).
*/c./ 1759 BCE*
*SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD* (1759 - 1539)
Egypt is disorganized and weak, possibly due to a
famine. The Hyksos conquer Egypt. Eventually, the
Theban princes recover their power. Kamose finally
defeats the Hyksos. My sources show many internal
inconsisencies both about how many pharaohs ruled and
their names, as well as when they ruled and what parts
of the country they controlled. This is definitely a
messy period to sort out. This work is an attempt to
put together the most consistent version possible.
Perhaps the most one should hope to settle about the
the Second Intermediate Period is how long it lasted
and not worry too much about the details of the
various pharaohs' reigns.
*13th Dynasty* (1759 - c.1621)
Some believe this dynasty begins with 21 pharaohs over
63 years (1759 - 1696), although the number of
pharaohs and the time span are both in dispute. Some
of these may have been only regional chieftains. Many
of the names are not known from any monumental
inscriptions; some only from scarabs. The 14th Dynasty
overlaps the latter part of the 13th, and there may
be, for any given pharaoh, some question of where each
should be placed. Here we begin with Wegef. After that
it gets a little messy.
*Khutawyre*
(Throne name:
"Re Protects the Two Lands") *Wegaf* (1759 - 1755)
(Birth name)
*Sankhibre*
(Throne name: "The Heart of Re Lives") *Ameny Intef
IV Amenemhet V* (? - 1736) Also known as *Ameny Intef*
(Birth name, "Amun is at the Head")
*Auyibre*
(Throne name:
"Re Succours the Heart") *Hor* (c. 1736) (Birth name)
Ruled for a few months. He was buried at Dashur.
*Sekhemre Khutawy*
(Throne name:
"Powerful is Re, Protector of the Two Lands")
*Amenemhet VI Sobekhotep II* (c. 1726) (Birth name:
"Amun is at the Head, Pleasing to the god Sobek").
Also known as *Sebekhotpe II*. He was probably buried
at Dashur.
*Userkare*
(Throne name:
"The Soul of Re is Powerful") *Khendjer* (c. 1723)
(Birth name) Buried at the Pyramid, South Saqqara.
*Sekhemre Sewadjtawy*
(Throne name:
"Powerful is Re, He makes the Two Lands Flourish")
*Sobekhotep III* (c. 1721) (Birth name: "Pleasing to
the god Sobek")
The time span between the inferred date for
*Sobekhotep III* and the reign of
*Neferhotep I* ranges from 4 to 25 years.
--------------- *The "mini-dynasty"* ---------------
begins with the reigns of three brothers.
*Khasekhemre*
(Throne name:
"Beautiful is the Soul of Re") *Neferhotep I* (1696 -
1685) (Birth name: "Beautiful and Pleasing"). Also
known as *Neferhotpe I*.
*Sihathor* (1685 - 1685) This brother may not have
had an independent reign of his own, he may only have
reigned as co-regenent with one or both of his brothers.
*Khaneferre*
(Throne name:
"Beautiful is the Soul of Re") *Sobekhotep IV* (1685
- 1678) (Birth name: "Pleasing to the god Sobek")
*Sobekhotep V* (1678 - 1674) (Birth name: "Pleasing
to the god Sobek") I have some concern that this is
really *Sobekhotep IV*, not a separate king.
*Iaib* (1674 - 1664)
*Merneferre*
(Throne name:
"Beautiful is the Desire of Re") *Ay* (1664 - 1641)
(Birth name) Also known as *Aya*.
--------------- *End of "mini-dynasty"* ---------------
9 kings in approx. 20 years (1641 - c.1621), including
the one mentioned here.
*Neferhotep II*
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*/c./ 1728 BCE*
Hammurabi (1728 - 1686 BCE), of the Old Babylonian Empire. */c./ 1720 - 1550 BCE*
The Hyksos
Invaders from Asia, conquer parts of Egypt, staying
mostly in the Delta but also venturing further south
at times.. This seems to be 100 years too soon for
those of us using the /lower chronology/, ie most
recent chronology, which tends to pull most events
toward the modern era.
*/c./ 1700 BCE*
Jacob and twelve of his sons settle in Egypt (Gen 46).
Beginning of Middle Bronze Age II B (1700-1600 BCE). */c./ 1650 BCE*
Construction of the fortress/temple of Baal-berith at
Shechem. Probable scene of Joshua's subsequent covenant
(Joshua 9:4f.).
*/c./ 1628 BCE*
Eruption of Thera/Santorini (radiocarbon date: 1640±30;
consensus date: 1680-1670); 1628-26 confirmed by
dendrochronology (bristlecone pine tree ring dates) of
growth ring damage from frosts correlated to major eruptions
during the past 5,500 years. This appears to be 200 years
too soon to explain the demise of the Minoan society on
Crete. There is no known earthquake candidate for that time
so a tidal wave related to a volcanic event seems to be
ruled out; unless the Minoan date is revised back to the
correct time of the Thera eruption. Crete was certainly
effected by this eruption, but whether or not the Empire was
destroyed by it is again an open question.
Interestingly, studies of tree rings
in the Near East also show an event at exactly same time.
There the effect of expected increases in cloud cover and
soil moisture had the predictable effect of spurring rings
of increased thickness due to enhanced growing conditions.
*/c./ 1621 BCE*
*14th Dynasty *(? - c.1621)
Manetho 's
14th Dynasty may have ruled just one of several
delta-kingdoms thought to have arisen during the
Second Intermediate Period; this line of "Pharaohs"
may have ruled from Avaris (Auaris) in the
eastern-delta region.
76 (?) minor rulers of the delta;
contemporary with the second-half 13th Dynasty
*Nehesy*
*15th Dynasty* (1633 - 1625)
Manetho
calls this Dynasty "/Hyksos/" -- 'shepherd-kings.'
The Hyksos drive the native Pharaohs south as far as
Thebes and retain the whole of Lower (northern) Egypt
to themselves. The Hyksos rule from Avaris for at
least a century before being driven out of the Nile
Valley and trapped at Avaris by the Theban 17th
Dynasty. Then the Hyksos are pushed out of the Delta
by Ahmose. His three year siege of their last
remaining stronghold at Shjaruhen, near Gaza, drives
the Hyksos completely out of Egypt. Ahmose and his
successors chased them into and through the Levant.
*Sheshi*
*Yakubber*
*Khyan*
*Apepi I*
*Apepi II * *Salitis (Shalek?)*
*Bnon*
*Apachnan (Khyan)*
*Iannas (Iannassi son of Khyan)
*Apophis (Auserre Apepi)*
*Assis (Khamudy?) **
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*16th Dynasty *
32 minor 'Hyksos' (?) kings contemporary with the 15th
& 17th Dynasties.
*Anather*
*Yakobaam*
*17th Dynasty* (1606 - 1539)
15 Theban Pharaohs.
*Sobekemsaf I*
*Sobekemsaf II*
*Intef VII*
*Tao I*
*Tao II*
*Kamose *
*Tao I (Senakhtenre)*
*Tao II (Sekenenre)*
*Kamose (Wadjkheperre) (? - 1539) *
*/c./ 1550 BCE*
Traditional dating for the destruction of Jericho (Middle
Bronze II C - 1600-1550 BCE). See also 1400 BCE for an
alternative dating. M
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*/c./ 1539 BCE*
*NEW KINGDOM *(1539 - 1069)
The victory of the teenage King Ahmose over the Hyksos
signaled the beginning of the New Kingdom in Egypt.
Following the expulsion of the invaders, Egypt began a
rapid expansion of its military power and cast a
watchful eye far from its immediate borders. It also
began to exercise control over its immediate
neighborhood, including the incorporation of a large
northern kingdom in Palestine and Syria. This became
the buffer zone between Egypt and anyone who would
attempt to conquer it again. Failure to maintain this
buffer zone opened up the opportunity exploited by the
Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 671 when he attacked
Egypt. Seven years later in 664 his successor,
Ashurbanipal, sacked Thebes and Egypt was again a
captive nation. Approximate beginning of the Late
Bronze Age I (1550-1400 BCE).
Prosperity and revivals in the arts and building
projects hallmark the beginning of this period.
Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the power of the
priesthood corrupted the central government. During
the 20th Dynasty even the officials were robbing
tombs. The priesthood became hereditary and began to
assume considerable secular power. The government
eventually broke down.
The foundation of the New Kingdom is usually viewed as
marking the end of the Middle Bronze Age (2100-1550
BCE) in Canaan, though there has been controversy on
this point.
*18th Dynasty* (1539 - 1295)
Thebans in this Dynasty were directly descended from
the 17th Dynasty and wore the dual crown of Upper and
Lower Egypt.
*Ahmose I* *Ahmose (Nebpehtyre)* (1539 - 1514)
Stela of King Ahmose
*Amenhotep I* *Amenhotep I (Djeserkare)* (1514 - 1493)
*Tuthmosis I* *Thutmose I (Akheperkare)* (1493 - 1481)
*Tuthmosis II* *Thutmose II (Akheperenre)* (1481 - 1479)
*Queen Hatshepsut*
Broken Head of Hatshepsut
*Hatshepsut (Maatkare)* (1473 - 1458)
Not the first female Pharaoh. She named herself senior
co-regent on the death of her husband. She was
powerful enough to prevent his son, her nephew, Broken
Head of Hatshepsut
from exercising his power for about half of his
nominal reign (his age 7 to 21 during the regency
years), plus after her co-regency ended, her
supporters marginalized the boy-king's power until
after her death. The Battle of Megiddo. may have taken
place during her half of the reign. No one knows what
happened to her. Thutmose III eventually gained
control over Egypt and when he did he took steps to
completely obliterate her name from every monument.
*Tuthmosis III*
Thutmosis III
/Tuthmosis III/ *Tuthmose III (Menkheperre)* (1479 -
1425),
the 'Napoleon of Egypt'.
Relief of Tuthmosis III
(/Relief of Tuthmosis III from Elephantine Island,
Temple of Satis - Louvre Collection/)
*Amenhotep II* *Amenhotep II (Akheperure)* (1427 - 1392)
*Tuthmosis IV*
Bust of Tuthmosis IV
(/Bust of Tuthmosis IV/) *Thutmose IV
(Menkheperure)* (1392 - 1382)
*Amenhotep III* *Amenhotep III (Nebmaatre)* (1382 -
1344)
Amenhotep III (Nebmaatre)
Portrait bust of Queen Tiye from The Royal Women of
Amarna, D. Arnold
Lion with the face of *Amenhotep III* and his chief
wife Queen Tiye. She was either the mother or
grandmother
of *Tutankhamun* and possibly the mother or
grandmother of *Smenkhkare*.
*Amenhotep IV*
(Akhenaten)
Ankhenaton
Akhenaten
/Pharaoh Akhnaton: Amenhotep IV /
Seated Statue of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)
Akhenaten and Nefertiti
(/Painted limestone pair statuette of Akhenaten and
Nerfertiti/, Louvre Collection)
*Amenhotep IV (Neferkheperure)* (1352 - 1336);
[the new name Akhenaten ('spirit of the Aten') taken
during 4th year of his reign.] He attempted to
introduce monotheism into Egypt, overthrowing the
traditional state religions of Egypt, and directly
threatened the power of the entrenched priesthood. His
successors took steps to completely obliterate his
name from every monument.
King And Queen with Children
/King And Queen with Children./
Aknhaton and Family Worshipping Aton
/Aknhaton and Family Worshipping Aton/
*Nefertiti*
Nefertiti
/Painted Limestone Bust of Nefertiti/
*Neferneferuaten (Ankhkheperure)* (1341 - 1337)
Dendrochronological dating of timbers from an Aegean
shipwreck
containing a gold scarab of Queen Nefertiti seem to
show that she was queen by about 1316 BCE, or at least
no later than a date between 1316 and the year the
ship sank. This is based on the date when the most
recently cut trees in the wreck were felled, ie 1316
BCE. This date is at least consistent with the
reference chronology and doesn't allow much wiggle
room to lower the date below about 1300 BCE.
* Smenkhkare
*
*Smenkhkare (Ankhkheperure)* (1337 - 1336)
* Tutankhamun
*
Tutankhamun
*Tutankhamun (Nebkheperure)* (1336 - 1327);
Younger brother, probably, of Akhenaten. He dies
without heir.
Detail from the back rest of the throne of Tutankhamun
(/Detail from the back rest of the throne of
Tutankhamun/)
*Ay* *Ay (Kheperkheperure)* (1327 - 1323);
a former official.
*Haremheb*
Cartouche for Horemheb
*Horemheb (Djeserkheperure)* (1323 - 1295),
a former official.
*/c./ 1531 BCE*
Hittites sack Babylon. */c./ 1468 BCE*
Battle of Megiddo. */c./ 1450 BCE*
Sudden decline of the Minoan Empire on Crete. L
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*/c./ 1400 BCE*
Approximate beginning of the Late Bronze Age II A (1400-1300
BCE) in Israel. (I assume here that the archaeological ages
apply uniformly throughout Egypt and the Levant, though it
is possible that there are some regional differences that
are not apparent to me. If there ever were such differences,
by the time of the Middle Kingdom regional trade would be
expected to have eliminated most of them.) */c./ 1400 BCE*
Palaces on Crete destroyed. */c./ 1400 BCE*
Bryant G. Wood's still controversial proposed new dating for
the destruction of Jericho (end of Late Bronze Age I
1550-1400 BCE). See also 1550 BCE above. */c./ 1370 - 1353 BCE*
Amarna Letters. L
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*/c./ Thirteenth Century BCE*
Rise of Assyria. Transparent glass appears in Egypt. Pen and
ink writing on papyrus appears in Egypt. Approximate
beginning of the Late Bronze Age II B (1300-1200 BCE). *13th - 11th Centuries BCE*
Increasing use of iron during the Late Bronze Age. */c./ 1295 BCE*
*19th Dynasty* (1295 - 1186) or (1040 - 940)
This is a military family hailing from the eastern
delta, perhaps from the region of Avaris. They may
have been the descendents of an Egyptian/Hyksos
marriage. What is certain is that this Dynasty builds
a capital and royal residence at Pi-Ramesse ('the
estate of Ramesses') over the site of the former
Hyksos city of Avaris.
*Ramesses I*
Cartouche for Ramesses I
*Ramesses I (Menpehtyre)* (1295 - 1294)
*Seti I*
Cartouche for Seti I
Seti I
/Mummy of Seti I, the second king of the 19th Dynasty,
the son of Ramesses I and Queen Sitre./
*Seti I (Menmaatre)* (1294 - 1279)
Sethi I
/Seti I/
*Ramesses II*
One of the colossi of Ramses II, son of King Seti I at
Abu Simbel
/One of the colossi of Ramses II, son of King Seti I
at Abu Simbel./ *Ramesses II (Usermaatre-setepenre)*
(1279 - 1213);
father of over 100 children; also known as 'Ramesses
the Great', 'ruler of rulers'; King Sesostris (to
Herodotus, not to be confused with 12 Dynasty pharaohs
Sesostris I-III); and King Sesoosis (to Diodorus
Siculus).
Temple at Abu Simbel
Also
known for the dedicatory stela to his father sometimes
known as the Stela of Year 400
. Note that
if this was referring to year 400 of the Great Sothic
Cycle, then *Ramesses II* would have ruled about the
year 923 BCE, if the last cycle started in 1323 BCE,
as suggested by the discussion above of /De Die
Natali/ composed by Censorinus in 238 AD.
Four seated colossi fronting the Great Temple at Abu
Simbel. This Temple was disassembled, moved to higher
ground and reassembled in the 1960's to avoid
inundation by rising water behind the Asswan High Dam.
Ramses II Smiting Enemies
(/Ramses II Smiting his Enemies/)
Ramses II Smiting Enemies
*Merneptah* *Merenptah (Baenre-hotephirmaat)* (1213 -
1203)
*Amenmesses* *Amenmesse (Menmire)* (1203 - 1200)
*Seti II* *Seti II (Userkheperure-setepenre)* (1200 -
1194)
*Siptah* *Siptah (Akhenre-setepenre)* (1194 - 1188)
*Queen Twosret* *Tausert (Sitre-meritamun)* (1188 -
1186)
*/c./ 1290 - 1250 BCE*
The Exodus, followed by the Israelite invasion of
Palestine. Given the uncertainty, even in the Egyptian
dates, it is difficult to determine which Pharaoh (or
Pharaohs) oversaw the Exodus. Can we even say, for certain,
that it took place during the 19th Dynasty; not the 18th or
the 20th? (Exod 13-15) */c./ 1290 BCE*
Ramsses II (1290-1224 BCE or 1279-1212 BCE) Pharaoh of
Egypt. He is the Pharaoh most directly responsible for
obliterating the monuments, statuary, and memory of
Amenhotep IV from the Egyptian landscape. */c./ 1280 BCE*
Siege of Troy. *after /c./ 1250 BCE*
Joshua leads the conquest of Canaan (Josh 1-24). */c./ 1200 BCE*
End of the Bronze Age in Israel. L
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*/c./ 1200 BCE*
Start of the Trojan War. Approximate beginning of the Iron
Age I A-B (1200-1000 BCE) in Israel. */c./ 1200 - 586 BCE*
The Iron Age in Israel. */c./ 1200 - 1030 BCE*
Time of the Judges: Israel is a twelve-tribe confederation
(Judg 1-21). */c./ 1192 BCE*
Sack of Troy (or is it 1280, as above?) */c./ 1186 BCE*
*20th Dynasty* (1186 - 1069)
Setnakhte
Ramesses III
Ramesses IV
Ramesses V
Ramesses VI
Ramesses VII
Ramesses VIII
Ramesses IX
Ramesses X
Ramesses XI Setakht (Userkhaure-meryamun) (1186 - 1184)
Ramesses III (Usermaatre-meryamun) (1184 - 1153)
Ramesses IV (Hekamaatre-setepenamun) (1153 - 1147)
Ramesses V (Usermaatre-sekheperenre) (1147 - 1143)
Ramesses VI (Nebmaatre-meryamun) (1143 - 1136)
Ramesses VII (Usermaatre-setepenre) (1136 - 1129)
Ramesses VIII (Usermaatre-akhenamun) (1129 - 1126)
Ramesses IX (Neferkare-setepenre) (1126 - 1108)
Ramesses X (Khepermaatre-setepenre) (1108 - 1099)
Ramesses XI (Menmaatre-setepenptah) (1099 - 1069)
*/c./ no later than 1175 - 1153 BCE*
Ramesses III, Pharaoh of Egypt. */c./ 1175 BCE*
The 'Sea Peoples' were moving out of the Aegean and
Anatolian regions as a result of years of drought and poor
harvests. Rameses III, according to the traditional
interpretation, defeated the Sea Peoples (including the
Philistines) in northern Phoenicia (Lebanon), settled at
least some of the captives in Egyptian strongholds along the
southern coast of Palestine, and thereby tightened his
control of the coastal Palestinian plain. In the short term
the captives were probably treated as hostages against the
threat of attack by their kinsmen. Eventually, they would
have come to treat their strongholds as home and would then
serve as the local mercenary force in support of Egyptian
interests in Palestine. Eventually, of course, the
Philistines turned themselves into an army of conquest and
threw out their Egyptian masters. */c./ 1115 BCE*
Tiglath-pileser I (1115-1078 BCE) of the Assyrians. */c./ 1070 BCE*
*THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD* (1070 - 715) or (1069 - 664)
The capital moves from Tanis, to Libya, to Nubia, to
Thebes, to Sais, and then back to Nubia and, finally,
to Thebes.
*21st Dynasty* (1069 - 945)
The Tanites who ruled from their new capital in the
eastern delta, Tanis.
*Smendes I* *Smedes I* (1070-1044)
*Amenemnisu* *Amenemnisu* (1040)
*Psusennes I*
Psusennes I
*Psusennes I* (1040-992)
*Amenemope* *Amenope* (993-984)
*Osorkon the elder* *Osochor* (984-978)
*Siamun* *Siamun* (978-959)
*Psusennes II* *Psusennes II* (959-945)
The *21st Dynasty* (1080 - 945) Theban High Priests **
** The Theban High Priests were contemporaries of the
Tanites and acknowledged their precedence in ruling
the nation. **
Herihor
Piankh
Pinedjem I
Masaherta
Menkheperre
Smendes II
Pinedjem II
Psusennes III (after 959)
** **
*/c./ 1020 BCE*
Samuel anointed Saul (1 Sam 10) King of Israel (1020-1000
BCE). Saul's kingdom was landlocked behind the Philistines
along the southern coastline and behind the
Sidonians/Phoenicians along the northern coast of The Great
Sea. He did not control Jerusalem. I
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*1,000 BCE*
World Population estimates = 50 - 100 million. */c./ 1000 BCE*
David (1000-961 BCE) defeats Saul and creates the Israelite
empire. Jerusalem is its capital. (2 Sam 2-21; 1 King 2). */c./ 961 BCE*
Solomon, King of the Israelites (961-922 BCE). Builds his
Temple in Jerusalem (1 Kings 3-11).
*/c./ 945 BCE*
*22nd Dynasty* (945 - 712)
Note that 23rd and 24th Dynasties overlap the 22nd,
*Sheshonq I* *Shoshenq I* (945-924)
*Osorkon I*
Block of Osorkon I Offering
(/Block of Osorkon I Offering/) *Osorkon I* (924-909)
*Sheshonq II* *Shoshenq II (?--883)*
*Takelot I* *Takelot (909--?)*
*Osorkon II* *Osorkon II* (883-855)
*Takelot II* *Takelot II* (860-835)
*Sheshonq III* *Shoshenq III (835-783)*
*Pamai* *Pami* (783-773)
*Sheshonq V* *Shoshenq IV* (773-735)
*Osorkon IV* *Osorkon IV* (735-712)
*Harsiese*
*/c./ 950 BCE*
First Temple completed. Libyan dynasties in Egypt (950 -
710 BCE). */c./ 935 - 914 BCE*
Shishak, Pharaoh of Egypt.
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*/c./ Around 922 to 918 BCE*
Israel divided into two kingdoms immediately after Solomon's
death. Beginning of the "Divided Kingdoms" of *Judah* ( the
two-tribe southern state including Jerusalem and the Salt
Sea {Dead Sea} and westward to the border with Philistia)
and *Israel* (the ten-tribe northern state, including both
sides of the Jordan River and the Sea of Chinnereth {Sea of
Galilee} and westward to The Great Sea {Mediterranean Sea})
(1 Kings 12). Approximate beginning of the Iron Age II A-B
(918-586 BCE).
*The Kings of Judah to the*
*Fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE* *The Kings of Israel to the*
*Fall of Samaria in 721 BCE*
(The detailed time-frames provided in II Kings are
inconsistent, and this appears to be just one of the
biblical chronologies that could be constructed by making
various assumptions about where the error occurs - assuming
that the biblical chronologies are not totally erroneous, of
course)
*Rehoboam* (930-913) *Jeroboam I* (930-909)
*Abijah* (912-910)
*Asa* (910-869) *Nadab* (909-908)
*Baasha* (908-885)
*Elah* (885-884)
*Zimri* (885-884)
*Tibn*i (884-880
*Omri* (880-873)
*Jehoshaphat* (869-848) *Ahab* (873-853)
*Ahaziah* (853-852)
*Jehoram* (848-841) *Joram* (852-841)
*Ahaziah* (841-841) *Jehu* (841-813)
*Athaliah* (841-835)
*Joash* (835-796) *Jehoahaz* (813-798)
*Amaziah* (796-767) *Jehoash* (798-781)
*Uzziah* (*Azariah*) (767-739) *Jeroboam II* (781-753)
*Zechariah* (753-752)
*Shallum* (752-752)
*Menahem* (752-741)
*Pekahiah* (741-739)
*Jotham* (739-731) *Pekah* (739-731)
*Ahaz* (731-715) *Hoshea* (731-722)
*Hezehiah* (715-686)
*Manasseh* (686-642)
*Amon* (642-640)
*Josiah* (640-609)
*Jehoahaz* (609-609)
*Jehoaikim* (609-598)
*Jehoiachin* (598-597)
*Zedekiah* (597-586)
*900 BCE*
*/c./ Ninth - Seventh Centuries BCE*
The Assyrian Empire at the zenith of its power. The list of
limmus, Assyrian officials appointed to oversee the New
Year's festival each year and for whom the year was named,
provide a precise chronology for this period because the
lists survive and because one of the limmu is associated
with a datable solar eclipse.
*Prominent Assyrian Kings*:
Asshurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE)
Shalmaneser III (859-824 BCE)
Adad-nirari III (807-782 BCE)
Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 BCE)
Shalmaneser IV(?) (727? BCE) son and successor of
Tiglath-pileser III
Sargon II (722-705 BCE)
Sennacherib (incl. 701 BCE)
Esarhaddon ......... Son and successor of Sennacherib;
after Sennacherib was killed by two of Esarhaddon's
brothers, Adrammelich and Sharezer, while he was worshipping
in his temple to the god Nisroch.
Ashurbanapal (669-633 BCE)
*/c./875 BCE*
Samaria founded.
*/c./ 828 BCE*
*23rd Dynasty* (828 - 725)
Pedibastet
Sheshonq IV
Osorkon III
Takelot III
Rudamon
Iuput
Nimlot
Peftjauabastet Pedubaste I (828-803)
Osorkon III (777-749)
Peftjauwybast (740-725)
*/c./ 814 BCE* Phoenicians found Carthage.
*800 BCE*
*Eighth or Seventh Century BCE*
Probable founding date for the earliest structure at Qumran.
For some centuries thereafter it appears to have been
abandoned. What it was, who built it and why are still
mysteries. Land routes through Palestine did not,
apparently, pass by Qumran. By hypothesis, however, water
routes across the Dead Sea may have focused on Qumran (City
of Salt) as their access point for goods and people moving
into and out of Jerusalem, Jericho and other points west and
north of the Dead Sea. Also, Qumran may at various time have
been an important center for salt production and storage,
and/or packaging for shipment throughout the region. */c./776 BCE*
First Olympics. */c./ 753 BCE*
Legendary founding of Rome. */c./ mid-Eighth Century BCE*
The time of Amos and Hosea. *733 BCE*
Assyrian conquest of Dor. *732 BCE* Fall of Damascus.
*/c./ 725 BCE*
*24th Dynasty* (725 - 715)
Tefnakht
Bakenrenef Shepsesre Tefnakht I 725-720
Wahkare Bakenranef 720-715
*/c./ 721 BCE*
Fall of the Israelite capitol of Samaria. Assyria conquers
Israel; deports the population. Exile of Israel (2 Kings
17). Israel becomes a province of Assyria.
*718 BCE*
Dendrochronolgy shows that logs used to build the the inner
chamber of the Midas Mound Tumulus
,
a massive tomb in Gordian named for King Midas of the
Phrygians, were cut in this year.
*/c./ 712 BCE*
*LATE KINGDOM*
The Nubians eventually fall to the Assyrians. Later
the Greeks help re-establish order. Another
renaissance in the arts during the 25th Dynasty marks
a revival of the Old Kingdom style.
*25th Dynasty* (712 - 664) The Nubians
Piankhi
Shabaka
Shebitku
Taharqa
Tanutamun
Shebaka (712-698)
Shebitku (698-690)
Taharqa (690-664)
Tantamani (664-657)
*/c./ 701 BCE*
Sennacherib besieges Jerusalem (2 Kings 18-19) (Is 36-37).
In the fourteenth year of the reign of King Hezekiah of
Judah, he and Sennacherib of Assyria and Tirhakah of
Kush/Egypt (also called King of Ethiopia) met in mutual
conflict; thereby establishing the synchronicity of these
three reigns.
*700 BCE*
*676 BCE*
Treaty signed between King Esarhaddon of Assyria and King
Baal of Tyre. Dor is described as a city on the southern
frontier of Tyre and is ceded to the King of Tyre.
*/c./ 671 BCE*
Esarhaddon attacks Egypt beginning nearly 20 years of
Assyrian rule and domination (671-652 BCE).
* 664 BCE*
Thebes sacked by Esarhaddon's Assyrian successor, Ashurbanipal.
*26th Dynasty* (664 - 525) The Assyrians
Psamtik I
Nekau
Psamtik II
Wahibre
Ahmose II
Psamtik III Psammetichus I (Psam-tik) (664-610)
Necho II (610-595)
Psammetichus II (595-592)
Hophra (592-???)
Apries (589-570)
Amasis (570-526)
Psammetichus III (526-525)
*/c./Early to mid-Seventh Century BCE*
Time of Isaiah and Micah.
Time of Homer or of the celebrity (possibly the first
written version) of Homer's works about a war fought 500
years earlier.
*/c./ 640 BCE*
Judah resurgence under Josiah. */c./ 621 BCE*
Book of Deuteronomy "discovered" (2 Kings 22-23). Josiah
reforms Judah's religion (2 Chron 34-35). */c./ late-Seventh Century BCE*
Time of Jeremiah. */c./ 612 BCE*
Fall of Nineveh to Medes and Babylonians. */c./ 609 BCE*
Pharoah Necho II, 26th Dynasty of Egypt, and leader of the
most powerful military and trading empire of its day,
marches north to support the struggling Assyrian Empire in
its effort against the rising Babylonian Empire. As Egyptian
forces pass near Megiddo, King Josiah of Judah, at the end
of his 30 year reign, attacks and is defeated. Josiah dies
of a battle wound and is succeeded by his anti-Egyptian, and
therefore arguabley pro-Assyrian, son Jehoahaz. Jehoahaz has
a very short reign. Necho II soon disposes of Jehoahaz and
replaces him with his elder, pro-Egyptian, brother Jehoiakim
as a vassal king of Egypt in Judah.
Necho crosses the Euphrates in July to join forces with the
Assyrians. Thereafter, Egypt controls the entire region all
the way to the Euphrates river. (2 Kings 24:7)
Judah's brief interlude of independence, between periods of
Assyrian and Egyptian control, comes to an end.
*/c./ 605 BCE*
Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BCE), the New Babylonian Empire.
Nebuchadnezzar II was succeeded, according to new
information interpreted from the scrolls by F. M. Cross,
first by his son Nabonidus and then by his grandson
Belshazzar. Stories about Nabonidus were revised during a
period of oral tradition into stories about Nebuchadnezzar
II. The reigns of Nabonidus and Belshazzar can span no more
than the twenty three years between the death of
Nebuchadnezzar II and the conquest of the New Babylonian
Empire by Cyrus in 539 BCE.
Upon gaining control of the Babylonian Empire,
Nebuchadnezzar II's first order of business was to attack
the last Assyrian monarch Ashur-ubalit. Having been routed
from their age old capital of Nineveh and then from Haran,
the Assyrians made their final capital city at Carchemish,
on the Euphrates, near the modern Turkish-Syrian border.
Necho II's troop were also at Carchemish in support of
Assyria. The Egyptian army is utterly defeated at the Battle
of Carchemish by the Babylonians. Syria and Palestine fall
to the Babylonians.
Failing to recognize the enormity of this sudden change in
the political winds, Judah, still under the leadership of
the pro-Egyptian Jehoiakim, sympathizes with Egypt, under
the illusion that Egyptian could still project a strong
military presence in the region, thereby ensuring future
conflict with Babylon. Egypt cannot respond to the pleas of
its former allies' requests for aid against the Babylonians.
*/c./ 603 BCE*
Judah surrenders to Babylon during Nebuchadnezzar II's sweep
through Syria and Palestine. Despite his pro-Egyptian
leanings, Jehoiakim wisely submits to Nebuchadnezzar II. (2
Kings 24:1) */c./ 601/600 BCE*
Babylon is defeated in its attack on Egypt's Eastern Delta.
Nebuchadnezzar II withdraws to Babylon for two years to
rebuilt his army. Jehoiakim responds to the new political
situation, and probably to his own political preference, and
renews his allegiance with Egypt. Necho II campaigns in
southern Palestine, in a mere appearance of a projection of
military force, and attempts to built a new coalition
against Babylon in the region. Most of the samll states in
the region, including Judah, are fooled by the Egyptian
front and eventually pay the price of siding with the weaker
power, Egypt, against the stronger, Babylon. Palestine is
filled with the ruins of cities which did not have the
opportunity or the forsight to surrender as Jerusalem
eventually did. Cities such as Ekron were utterly destroyed
as recent excavation of the total destruction layer (Stratum
1B) have shown.
*600 BCE*
*/c./ 598 BCE*
Jehoiakim dies (possibly at the hands of his enemies, or
even in a fratricidal coup) and is succeeded by his 18 year
old son Jehoiachin. Late in the year Nebuchadnezzar strikes
at Judah, which is now the friend of his enemy.
*/c./ 597 BCE*
Jerusalem surrenders to Babylon on March 16 (12 Adar).
Appeased by Judah's capitulation and by Jehoiakim removal
from the scene, Nebuchadnezzar II orders that the city be
spared. Nebuchadnezzar II sends Jehoiachin and thousands of
other Judahites into exile and installs Jehoiachin's uncle
Zedekiah as a puppet king.
The Territory of Benjamin may also have been taken at this
time by Nebuchadnezzar II, although is it also possible that
this did not occur until 589/588 BCE.
*/c./ 595 BCE*
Necho II dies and is succeeded by the very ambitious
pharaoh, Psammetich II.
*/c./ 594/593 BCE*
Zedekiah, perhaps relying on news of an uprising in Babylon,
convenes a mini-summit of neighboring states (Edom, Moab,
Ammon, and the city states of the Phoenician coast) --
probably to plan their own revolt against Babylon, whose
defeat at the hands of Egypt in 601/600 BCE was still a
fresh memory. This conspiracy, if that is what it was, came
to a sudden end when Nebuchadnezzar II reenetered Palestine
with his rebuilt army and received prompt reassurance of
Judah's continuing loyalty from Zedekiah.
*/c./ 592 BCE*
Pharaoh Psammetich II marches in Palestine and Phoenicia in
response to moves made by Babylon and attempts to generate
anti-Babylonian sentiments among the leaders of Judah,
Philistia and Phoenicia.
*/c./ 590/589 BCE*
Zedekiah, possibly inspired by the appearance or promise of
support from the new pharaoh Hophra, actively and openly
rebels against Babylon.
*/c./ 589/588 BCE*
Nebuchadnezzar II, after some delay, responds to pharaoh
Hophra's initiatives, attacks Judah, and places Jerusalem
under siege. The Territory of Benjamin and other territories
also succumb to Nebuchadnezzar II's attacks at this time.
The siege of Jerusalem lasts up to 2-1/2 years, ending after
famine takes its final terrible toll on the defenders.
*/c./ 586 BCE*
Babylon breaches the walls of Jerusalem in July. Zedekiah is
captured trying to escape at night and is taken before
Nebuchadnezzar II at Riblah. Nebuchadnezzar II blinds
Zedekiah and sends him into exile in Babylon.
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*/c./ 586 BCE*
In August Nebuchadnezzar II destroys Jerusalem, razes and
burns the Temple, and exiles all of Judah. He takes many
Judahite as captives to Babylon (2 Kings 24).
The Davidic Dynasty comes to an end.
*586 - 538 BCE*
Babylonian Captivity. Time of Ezekiel. Approximate beginning
of the Iron Age III (586-332 BCE) in Israel. *550 BCE*
Cyrus (550-530 BCE) of Persia. The Persian Empire under
Cyrus eventually conquers and replaces the New Babylonian
Empire. */c./ 539 BCE*
Babylon falls to Cyrus and the Persian Empire.
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*538 BCE*
The Persian conquest of Babylon ends the exile. The Edict of
Cyrus allows the exiles to return to Palestine. (Ezra 1)
Others, including the Adiabenians (mentioned by Josephus as
the oldest communities of the Diaspora), do not return to
Palestine. Still others disperse throughout the Eastern
Mediterranean, and beyond, over the course of the following
centuries. *530 BCE*
Cambyses (530 - 522 BCE) of Persia. *525 - 401 BCE* Egypt
under Persian rule. */c./ 525 BCE*
*27th Dynasty* (525 - 404) The Persians
Cambyses II
Darius I
Xerxes
Artaxerxes I
Darius II
Artaxerxes II Cambyses 525-522
Darius I 521-486
Xerxes I 486-466
Artaxerxes I 465-424
Darius II 424-404
*522 BCE*
Darius I (522-486 BCE) of Persia and Egypt. */c./ 520 - 515 BCE*
Jerusalem Temple rebuilt (Ezra 6). Beginning of the Second
Temple Period. Judah becomes a province of the Persian
Empire (Hag 2). *509 BCE*
Roman Republic established. *500 BCE*
World Population estimates = 100 - 150 million. *499 BCE*
Rome's Persian Wars (499-479 BCE). *486 BCE*
Xerxes I (486-465 BCE) of Persia and Egypt. *465 BCE*
Artaxerxes I (465-424 BCE) of Persia and Egypt. *461 BCE*
Pericles (461-429 BCE) of Athens. */c./ 458 BCE*
Ezra's mission?? */c./ 445 BCE*
Nehemiah comes to Judah. Torah promulgated, Ezra and
Nehemiah's reforms (Neh 8). Herodotus visits Egypt. This is
a century before Manetho
assembled his
list of Pharaohs. *433 BCE*
Darius II (424-404 BCE) of Persia and Egypt. */c./ 404 BCE*
*28th Dynasty* (404 - 399)
Amyrtaeus Amyrtaios (404-399)
*400 BCE*
World Population estimates = 162 - 245 million. after *400 BCE*
Socrates's death. */c./ 399 BCE*
*29th Dynasty* (399 - 380)
Nefaarud I
Hakor Nepherites I (399-393)
Psammuthis (393)
Hakoris (393-380)
Nepherites II (380)
*/c./ 398 BCE*
Ezra's mission?? */c./ 380 BCE*
*30th Dynasty* (380 - 343)
The 30th Dynasty contains the last of the native-born
Egyptian Pharaohs.
*Nakhtnebef*
Head of Nectanebo I
(/Head of Nectanebo I - Louvre Collection/)
*Nectanebo I* 380-362
*Djedhor* *Teos* 365-360
*Naktenabo* *Nectanebo II* 360-343
With the end of *Nectanebo*'s reign 2757 (= 3100 -
343) years of continuous, more-or-less, native rulers
comes to an end.
*358 BCE*
Artaxerxes III (358-338 BCE) of Persia and Egypt (in 343). */c./356 BCE*
Alexander the Great (c.356-323) is born. */c./ 343 BCE *
*31st Dynasty* (343 - 332)
Also known as the *Second Persian Period*, was added
after Manetho
created his list of kings. After a 60 year hiatus,
during which there was a period of native rule, Egypt
is again ruled by Persians until Alexander conquers
Egypt and Persia.
Artaxerxes III
Arses
Darius III Ochus (Artaxerxes III) (343-338)
Arses (338-336)
Darius III Codomannus (336-332)
*336 BCE*
Darius III (336-332 BCE) of Persia. Alexander "The Great"
(336-323 BCE) of Greece, son of Philip II of Macedonia. It
is interesting that these two should ascend their thrones at
the same time.
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*332 BCE*
Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE) invades. A regional
process of Hellenization begins all over the eastern
Mediterranean. Alexander's generals eventually become his
successors; the Ptolemy's rule Egypt and Palestine and the
Seleucids rule Anatolia, Syria and Persia. *331 BCE*
Darius III (336-331 BCE), king of the Persians and Medes was
defeated by Alexander the Great, son of Philip of Macedonia.
(1 Macc 1). *331 - 200 BCE*
Alexander the Great conquered the "known" world. Following
the death of Alexander, Palestine became part of the empire
of the Greeks in Egypt, the Ptolemies. Hellenized cities
where built along the coast at Gaza, Ascalon, Joppa, Dor,
and Acco (renamed Ptolemais), ie all along the entire coast
of Philistia. This provided a buffer zone between Egypt and
the Seleucid empire which had already annexed Phoenicia. It
also left the inland parts of Palestine (including a very
small Judaea around Jerusalem and Jericho) essentially land
locked. Interestingly, even at its smallest extent, Judaea
still included Qumran. Inland cites were built or rebuilt,
such as that at Scythiopolis (formerly Beth Shean), Samaria
was Hellenized as Sebaste, and Rabbath-Ammon (Amman) was
refounded as Philadelphia, which remained a free city state.
Greeks, Macedonians and Hellenized Phoenicians took up
permanent residence throughout Palestine. *323 BCE*
Alexander the Great dies. */c./ 323 - 30 BCE*
*Manetho*
The following, and all that appears of this work above
concerning Manetho, is extracted from the volume of
the Loeb Classical Library edition of /Manetho/ (1940,
reprinted 1980), translated by W. G. Waddell. This
book draws on most of the available sources of ancient
writers who quoted Manetho. It should be remembered
that even these are sometimes only known through
intermediary translations. Where more than one source
attributed to the same author are available, they
frequently disagree. Thus we cannot always be sure
what Eusebius or Africanus, say, originally wrote
about Manetho's work. The names of the pharaohs used
in this chronology and attributed to Manetho are
Waddell's English translations from his quoted
sources, except where I have added my own
transliteration (rarely) taken from the Greek or Latin
text printed on the facing page to more precisely
match the written form of the name. Where various
sources give divergent names or name-forms, I have
tried to include all of them after Waddell's.
Manetho wrote in Greek during the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
Very little is known about him with certainty. Even
his /Aegyptiaca/, or the /History of Egypt/, is only
known from secondary sources. An /Epitome/ of his
/History of Egypt/ was made at an early date, shortly
after the history was written, but probably not by
Manetho himself. It took he form of lists of Dynasties
with notes of outstanding kings or important events.
This uggests that Manetho's works were popular and
widely read from the earliest possible date. The
remains of this /Epitome/ are preserved primarily by
the early Christian chronographers Eusebius (326 CE)
and Sextus Julius Africanus. Africanus (221 CE) seems
to ave transmitted the more accurate version of the
two. Other known works attributed to Manetho include
the following:
# /The Sacred Book/, on Egyptian Religion,
# /An Epitome of Physical Doctrines/,
# /On Festivals/, possibly part of /The Sacred Book/,
# /On Ancient Ritual and Religion/, possibly part
of /The Sacred Book/,
# /On the Making of Kyphi/, an incense, possibly
part of /The Sacred Book/,
# /The Criticisms of Herodotus/, probably not a
separate work,
# /Book of Sothis/ or /The Sothic Cycle/
(transmitted to us only through Syncellus),
considered spurious and almost certainly not by
Manetho, it may nevertheless include important
transmission of some of the information
contained in Manetho's work,
# /Kings of Thebes/ (in Egypt), considered doubtful,
# The /Old Chronicle/, a corrupted version of the
History.
/Aegyptiaca/ and its /Epitome/ are known only from
fragmentary, often only in paraphrase, and frequently
distorted, quotations chiefly by Josephus and by the
Christian chronogrophers Africanus and Eusebius, with
isolated passages quoted by Plutarch, Theophilus,
Aelian, Porphyrius, Diogenes Laertius, Theodoretus,
Lydus, Malalas, the Scholia to Plato, and the
/Etymologicum Magnum/. His religious writings are
known mainly through references in Plutarch's /On Isis
and Osiris/.
There are only three things about the man himself that
seem to be known with high probability: He was an
Egyptian who wrote in Greek; He was a priest at
Heliopolis, and; He was active in introducing the cult
of Serapis. His name is unique as a proper name, if
that is what it was. Perhaps it was his title rather
than his name. A certain priest under the 19th Dynasty
is described as "First Priest of the Truth of Thoth"
and "Truth of Thoth" is how his name is sometimes
interpreted.
As to when he wrote, Syncellus (George the Monk, c.
800 CE) includes the information that he "lived later
than Berossos", and that he was "almost contemporary
with Berossos, or a little later." Berossos was a
priest of Marduk in Babylon who lived under and wrote
for Antiochus I (280 - 261 BCE), and dedicated his
/Chaldaica/ to him after he became sole monarch (281
or 280 BCE).
He is usually associated with the district of
Sebennytus (now Samannud), the seat of the 30th
Dynasty, in the Delta, although the style "Manetho of
Mendes", a town about 17 miles distant from
Sebennytus, is also known. Though this may be a later
confusion with Ptolemy of Mendes, an Egytpian priest,
probably from about the time of Augustus, who also
wrote an Egyptian chronology in three books. Manetho
is said to have styled himself in a letter to Ptolemy
II Philadelphus as "high-priest and scribe of the
sacred shrines of Egypt, born at Sebennytus and
dwelling at Heliopolis."
As a priest Manetho had complete access to any number
of records no longer available today. There is no way
to know today exactly what records he consulted, there
are some records that come down to the modern era with
which he was certainly familiar and which must have
been consulted in writing his History. From these we
gain some insight into the quality of the versions of
his work to which we have access. These include:
The first two sources cover the tradition of
Upper Egypt. The next two reflect the tradition
of Lower Egypt.
# /The Royal List of Abydos/, lists 76 kings in
order from Menes to Sethos I, but Dynasties 13
to 17 are missing. A mutilated copy of this list
also appears in the Temple of Ramesses II at
Abydos (now in the British Museum).
# /The Royal List of Karnak/ (now in the Louvre)
originally included a list of 61 kings from
Menes to Tutmosis III of Dynasty 18. It includes
many names from the 2nd Intermediate period,
Dynasties 13 to 17.
# /The Royal List of Sakkara/ (found in a tomb at
Sakkara, and now in the Cairo Museum) originally
included the cartouches of 58 (now only 47
remain), including Ramesses II. It begins with
Miebis, the sixth king of Dynasty 1. It omits
Dynasties 13 to 17.
# /The Turin Royal Canon/ is clearly the most
important of the available sources available
today. It is written on the /verso/ of a
document containing accounting records from the
time of Ramesses II on the /recto/ (approximate
date of 1200 BCE). When complete it contained
the names of over 300 kings with their reign
lengths in years, months and days. Like Manetho
it begins with dynasties of gods followed by the
dynasties of mortal kings. The arrangement is
much like the /Epitome/ of Manetho.
# /The Palermo Stone/ is a more ancient source,
taking the record back to before the 5th
Dynasty. It was originally a large slab of black
diorite seven feet long by 2 feet high. It is
now broken. The middle section is still
preserved and resides in the Museum of Palermo.
Smaller fragments have been identified of this
or a similar monumental stone have been
identified in the Cairo Museum and at University
College, London.
He is quoted so extensively by these later writers
that most of the document seems (however distorted) to
have come down to us.
*Ptolemaic Dynasty*
Upon the death of Alexander, the Ptolemies take over
the rule of Egypt, for nearly three hundred years,
through the reign of Cleopatra VII. Ptolemy I (323-284
BCE) of Egypt. This period in Egypt is confused and
confusing. Even today, there is some controversy over
the order and precedence of the various members of
this dynasty.
*Ptolemy I*
Silver tetradrachm coin from reign of Ptolemy I
Ptolemy I Soter I (323-285)
Ptolemy II Ptolemy II Philadelphus (282-246)
Ptolemy III Ptolemy III Euergeter I (246-222)
Ptolemy IV Ptolemy IV Philopator (222-205)
Ptolemy V Ptolemy V Epiphanes (205-180)
Ptolemy VI Ptolemy VI Philometor (180-164 & 163-145)
Ptolemy VII Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator (145)
Ptolemy VIII Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (170-163 &
145-116)
Ptolemy IX Cleopatra III & Ptolemy IX Soter II
(116-107 & 88-80)
Ptolemy X Cleopatra III & Ptolemy X Alexander I (107-88)
Cleopatra Berenice (81-80)
Ptolemy XI Ptolemy XI Alexander II (80)
Ptolemy XII Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos (80-58 & 55-51)
Cleopatra VII
Berenice IV (58-55)
Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XIII (51-47)
Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XIV (47-44)
Ptolemy XV Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XV Cesarion (44-30)
*312 BCE*
Founding of the Seleucid (Syrian) Empire by the Macedonians.
The Ptolemies take control of Palestine. Seleucus I (312-280
BCE) of Syria, founder of the Seleucid Empire.
*300 BCE*
*280 BCE*
Antiochus I (280-261 BCE) of Syria. *264 - 146 BCE*
Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage. *246 BCE*
Seleucus II (246-226 BCE) of Syria. *223 BCE*
Antiochus III (The Great: 223-187 BCE) of Syria. *218 BCE*
Hannibal campaigns in Italy. *203 BCE*
Ptolemy V (203-181 BCE) of Egypt.
*200 BCE*
World Population estimates = 150 - 231 million.
Could the bloodiness of Alexander's conquests account for a
suggested drop in the world population between 400 BCE and
200 BCE, or is there some other well known explanation for
this effect?
*198 BCE*
Judaea ceases to be a province of Egypt and becomes a
province of the Seleucid Empire ruled by the Greek-Syrian
successors of Alexander the Great. Signs of Hebrews
succumbing to the Greek cultural influence (Hellenization)
appear. The Book of Ecclesiasticus, by Jesus ben Sira, dates
to about this time. He was a sage of Jerusalem who railed
against the 'ungodly men' who have 'forsaken the Law of the
Most High God'. *197 BCE*
390 years after the beginning of the Babylonian exile. The
earliest year according to the Damascus Document of the
birth of the Righteous Teacher.
In the epoch of wrath, three hundred and ninety years after
he gave them into the power of Nebuchadnezzar, King of
Babylon, he visited them and caused a root of planting to
sprout from Israel and from Aaron to possess His land and to
grow rich with the good things of His land. And they came to
understand their iniquity and to know that they were guilty
men; but they were like blind men or like those who grope
for the way twenty years. And God recognized their works,
that they sought Him with a whole heart and so raised up for
them a Righteous Teacher to make them tread in the way of
His heart and to instruct the last generations that which He
would do in the last generation against the congregation of
the false. (CD 1.5-12)
Though F. M. Cross warns us not take the scriptural number
"390" (Ezek 4.5) seriously, it is not totally out of the
question that it is meant to be a real number. If He visited
them, and then let them wander for 20 years, while the
Righteous Teacher grew and matured, then 177 BCE would be
the earliest year in which he could begin teaching.
If Cross is correct that 390 cannot be read arithmetically,
then we are forced to fall back to looking for 20 years
periods of error and "groping". He suggests the
approximately 20 period from the 160s to the 140s BCE when
the Hasidim supported the Maccabees.
Cross' chronological interpretation is to assume that the
break of the Hasidim either with Jonathan late is his career
or with Simon early in his career, marks the end of the 20
years of groping. Simon became High Priest in 143/142 BCE.
*190 BCE*
Battle of Magnesia. *187 BCE*
Seleucus IV (187-175 BCE) of Syria. Beginning of Hellenistic
infiltration; resisted by the Zadokite High Priest Onias III. *181 BCE*
Ptolemy VI (181-146 BCE) of Egypt. *175BCE*
Seleucus IV deposed by his brother Antiochus IV (Epiphanes:
175-163 BCE), who seizes the throne to become king of Syria.
Seleucus' nine year old son, Demetrius, is sent as a hostage
to Rome. Onias III deposed as high priest in favor of his
Hellenophile brother, Jesus, who changed his name to the
Greek form, Jason (175-172 BCE). Hellenization was most
popular among the Judaean elite. Jason sets out to transform
Jerusalem into a Hellenistic city. *172 BCE*
Jason expelled from office in favor of Menelaus (172-162
BCE), who was also a Hellenizing high priest. Onias IV, son
of Onias III, is prevented by Menelaus from taking his
hereditary position as high priest. */c./ 171 BCE*
Antiochus IV takes the title Epiphanes, "God made manifest". *171 BCE*
Onias III murdered by Menelaus. With the death of Onias and
the deposition of Jason, his usurping brother, the Zadokite
family, from which the incumbents of the high priest's
office traditionally came, lost their centuries old
monopoly. Forced Hellenization begins.
*170 BCE*
*169 BCE*
Epiphanes allies himself with the Hellenizing movement in
Jerusalem. He then makes an excursion into Egypt (the Delta
region, at least) and he enjoys successful plundering there.
On his return to Jerusalem Epiphanes invades the sanctuary
and loots the Temple of its treasures. Onias IV, the
hereditary high priest, flees to Ptolemy. In contravention
of biblical law, which authorizes only one sanctuary and
only in Jerusalem, Onias plans and eventually builds a small
town like Jerusalem, Leontopolis, and in it a Sanctuary like
the one in the Temple in Jerusalem.
If Onias' party formed the basis for the Hasidaeans who
appear later, then this copy of the temple must eventually
have been recognized as a mistake. If the Hasidim were the
beginnings of the sectarian group that is supposed to have
occupied Qumran, then we have to explain how the bones of
sacrificial animals came be buried at Qumran. Cross
attributes to Strugnell the idea that the Qumran sect lived
their lives on a pattern of the camps in the wilderness,
where sacrifice outside the Temple was permissible, under
the auspices of a Zadokite priest. That would explain why
there was no remote resemblance to the Temple at Qumran like
there had been at Leontopolis. Other copies of the Temple
have been reported and it is possible that several groups
were eventually convinced to leave their fake temples and
join the camps in the wilderness movement, if there was one.
I like the idea that Onias III was the original inspiration
for the Teacher of Righteousness. Though he did not lead
anyone into the desert, original writings of such a sect
would have provided a place of honor for the last Zadokite
High Priest. That would seem to leave Jesus, renamed Jason,
as the Wicked Priest. The parallel to the later Jason
Maccabaeus must have had a galvanizing effect on such a sect
as he removes the last vestiges of hope for a return of the
Zadokite high priests to the Temple. The Wicked priest could
thus be a composite based on the coincidence of identical
names for two hated priests.
Jason Maccabaeus enemy, but probably not a second candidate
for the Teacher of Righteousness, was Alcimus. The Hasidim
supported him at one time, and technically he was the last
Zadokite high priest, but he turned on them and killed many.
Another good candidate for the Teacher of Righteousness is
some unnamed student or descendent of Onias III.
*168 BCE*
Epiphanes stopped by the Romans in his second campaign
against Egypt. *167 BCE*
Sacrifices are suspended in the Temple for 3-1/2 years.
Persecution of those Hebrews who opposed unification with
the Seleucid Empire on the basis of Greek culture and
religion. Official abolition of Judaic religion and practice
under threat of death. Epiphanes' Mysian commander,
Apollonius, tortures and kills many in Jerusalem. The Temple
is transformed into a sanctuary of Olympian Zeus. On
December 6, Epiphanes erects a "horrible abomination" upon
the altar in the Temple. (In the original Hebrew this is a
contemptuous pun on the title "lord of Heaven" given to Zeus
Olympios to whom an image or an altar was apparently
erected.) The opposition to the Hellenizers is finally
galvanized into action by this final "abomination of
desolation". Apollonius built the massive walls and towers
that became the Citadel overlooking the Temple and its
courts on Mt Zion. The Syrian garrison, together with
dissidents, occupied the Citadel for 26 years (until 141
BCE) and served as a continuing threat to the Temple, the
City of Jerusalem, and the citizens of Jerusalem. (1 Macc;
Dan 11:36-39) *166 BCE*
Rising of the Maccabees (166-160 BCE) supported by the
traditional, anti-Hellenistic, parties. Originally lead by
Mattathias, son of Hasmon (Simeon), or Asamonaeus (hence the
term "Hasmonaean" for their dynasty), a priest from Modein
(20 miles NW of Jerusalem), who with his five sons start a
revolt, tear down the pagan altars, and reinstate
circumcision. They are initially supported by the
traditional, anti-Hellenistic, groups, in particular, by the
company of the Pious, the Hasidaeans or Hasidim. After
Mattathias death, his son Judas (nicknamed "Maccabaeus"
meaning "the hammer") takes over as leader of the rebel army
and defeats Antiochus' generals, Apollonius and Seron.
Apollonius was killed and Judas claimed his sword. Seron was
also defeated and he and his army were driven out of Judaea
and took refuge in the land of the Philistines (the coastal
cities of southern Palestine, especially Jamnia which was an
important base for Seleucid power).
F. M Cross makes a fairly good case for the Hasidim as the
Essenes whom it is claimed occupied Qumran. Their later
initial support of Alcimus, despite the presence of his
Hellenizing Syrian supporters, is a strong suggestion of
their dedication to the reinstallation of the Zadokite High
Priests. This seems more than a little fanatical given
Alcimus willingness to let 60 of the Hasidim be executed by
his own supporters.
*165 BCE*
*165 BCE*
Epiphanes sets out to levy tribute from Persia to pay for
his wars against Judaea (he failed). At the same time he
left Lysias in charge of the Empire and his son, Antiochus.
He also ordered him to send an army against Judaea with
orders to wipe out the Hebrew race and to efface their
memory from the land. He intended to resettle the land with
foreigners and redistribute the land by lot. Lysias sent
Ptolemy, Nicanor and Gorgias at the head of the armies of
Syria. *164 BCE*
Truce with Syria. Cleansing, rededication and repair of the
Temple in Jerusalem. Daily sacrifices resume in the Temple
on December 14, 164 BCE after Judas initiates an attack to
drive the Syrian garrison out of the Upper City and into the
Citadel. Judas "Maccabaeus" assumes responsibility as high
priest (164-161 BCE) even as Menelaus continues to hold the
official title from the king of Syria. Antiochus IV
Epiphanes (175-163 BCE) of Syria dies as early as November
or December in Persia shortly after hearing that the Temple
in Jerusalem is recaptured by Judas. (Dan 7:25; 12:7, 8:14,
9:27) *163 BCE*
Antiochus V (163-162 BCE), the nine year old son of
Epiphanes, king of Syria. *163 BCE*
Judaeans living in Galilee and Gilead are attacked and Judas
sends armies to rescue them. Joseph and Asariah, whom Judas
left in charge during his absence, attack Jamnia and are
defeated by Gorgias' army. After Judas returned from his
rescue mission to Gilead, he attacked Idumaea and Philistia,
plundered their cities, and then returned to Jerusalem. *162 BCE*
Antiochus V of Syria is executed by his twenty-five year old
cousin, Demetrius I (162-150 BCE), who fled his captivity in
Rome to claim his rightful place as king of Syria. Judas
attacks the Syrian garrison in the Citadel in Jerusalem.
Menelaus is executed by the Syrians. Alcimus (162-159 BCE)
is appointed high priest by the king of Syria. This splits
the ranks of the Hasidim within the Maccabaean movement. As
an Aaronic priest, most of the Hasidim trusted Alcimus until
he accepted this appointment. Alcimus Syrian supporters'
kill 60 of the Hasidim who trusted his peaceful words. Judas
and his brothers did not trust Alcimus from the beginning
since he came with Bacchides and a large Syrian army to
enforce his appointment as high priest. *161 BCE*
Judas allies himself with Rome. The treaty brings the
Judaeans no practical help against Syria, however. The
Syrian army now under Nicanor attacks in order to protect
the garrison and Alcimus.
*160 BCE*
*160 BCE*
Nicanor dies in battle and his army is defeated. Bacchides
takes command of the Syrian army. Judas "Maccabaeus" dies in
battle about one month after Nicanor. His brother Eleazar
died in 162 BCE in an earlier battle and another brother,
John, dies a few days after Judas in a Syrian plot. That
leaves only two remaining Hasmonaean brothers, Jonathan and
Simon. Jonathan (160-142 BCE) inherits Judas' position as
leader of the rebels and eventually receives from the king
of Syria the title High Priest (152-143/2 BCE) and then
governor of Judaea (145-142 BCE). Jonathan is from a
priestly family but not of the Zadokites, the traditional
holders of the position of the high priestly title. */c. /160? BCE*
Temple of Onias IV built. *159 BCE* Alcimus, the last
Hellenizing High Priest, dies of a stroke. No High Priest is
appointed for 6 or 7 years until Jonathan is appointed by
Alexander Balas, usurper of the Seleucid throne, in 152. *153 BCE*
The Syrian throne of Demetrius I (162-153 BCE) usurped by
Alexander Balas (nominal king of Syria 153-145 BCE), alleged
to be a son of Antiochus IV. Jonathan's support of Alexander
over Demetrius earned him some favors from Alexander during
the struggle and after they were successful.
*150 BCE*
*150/49 BCE*
Alexander Balas confirms Jonathan as high priest. An
important step toward Judaean independence. Also, marks a
furtherance of the split between the conservatives, like the
Hasidim, who still looked to the Zadokites for their high
priests, and the Maccabees. Both sides were still united in
their antipathy to the Hellenizing influence of the Seleucid
Empire, however. *mid-second century BCE*
Qumran was rebuilt and expanded (including general repairs
and strengthening of the walls, including the addition of
the ramp of undressed stones buttressing the outer wall of
the first two levels of the tower). There seems to be
general disagreement about whether or not this type of
structure was "typical" of the fortified structures of the
period. The term "country forts" has been proposed, but as
far as I can tell there is no consensus about who built such
forts, why they were built where they are, or even if they
were forts or simply strong houses built in remote
locations. Conceivably, the structures styled country forts
could have been built on may different plans and some, like
Qumran according to de Vaux, may have used the shell of much
older structures to save some of the effort required to
build from scratch. *146 BCE*
The revolt of the Achaean League. This marks the end of
Greek independence. This episode is inserted by the Author
of 1 Maccabees into his narrative at an earlier date
primarily to show the Greeks, whom he regards as the enemies
of God, suffering a defeat at the hands of the Romans at a
time when Rome is making friendly overtures to Judas. In
fact, by the time this occurred, Judas had already been dead
for fourteen years. *146 BCE*
Ptolemy VII (146-116 BCE) of Egypt. *145 BCE*
Alexander Balas (nominal king of Syria 150-145 BCE) dies,
leaving his son Antiochus VI (145-138 BCE) raised to the
throne as king of Syria by Tryphon, his father's general.
(One timeline listed Demetrius II (145-139 BCE), but this
almost has to be a reference to Tryphon who was raising and
leading Antiochus VI. A Demetrius is also mentioned in 1
Macc. as confirming Simon's position as high priest ten
years after Demetrius I's death, though this could be
misleading if the times were altered for expositional
purposes by the author.) Jonathan named governor of Judaea
(145-142 BCE). Jonathan's younger brother, Simon, is made a
military governor of part of Palestine. Additional important
steps toward Judaean independence. */c./143 BCE*
Treaty with Rome renewed by Jonathan, necessitated by the
death of the ruler, Judas, who made it. Jonathan is arrested
by Tryphon. *142 BCE*
Jonathan (161-142 BCE) is executed in prison. Jonathan's
brother Simon (142-134 BCE) becomes high priest. *?141 BCE*
Syrian garrison expelled from the Citadel; Judaea
effectively independent.
*140 BCE*
*140 BCE*
In the third year of his rule, Simon calls an assembly of
'the priests and people and heads of the nation and the
elders of the country' to confirm his and his family's right
to serve as high priest 'until a faithful prophet arise' to
decide the priestly question, between the Hasmonaeans and
the Zadokites, presumably. Simon is thereby appointed
ethnarch, his position as high priest is confirmed by the
whole Jewish assembly, and both of his titles are confirmed
as hereditary, marking the beginning of the Maccabaean, or
Hasmonaean, dynasty. The decree was engraved in bronze and
mounted on a stelae on Mount Zion. Annexation of Joppa and
Jamnia. For the next 64 years the Hasmonaean successors
annexed, one by one, all the Hellenistic towns of Palestine,
and conquered Idumaea in the south and Samaria and Ituraea
in the north. *138 BCE*
Antiochus VI (145-138 BCE) of Syria dies. Antiochus VII
(Sidates: 138-129 BCE) king of Syria after defeating
Tryphon's attempt to usurp the throne. *134 BCE*
Simon with two of his sons, Judas and Mattathias, is killed
on a visit to the fortress, Doq, being constructed above
Jericho for Simon by Ptolemy, son of Abudos and son-in-law
of Simon. Ptolemy dispatched troops to Gezer to kill Simon's
other son, John Hyrcanus, but he survives. John Hyrcanus I
(135-104 BCE) becomes high priest and ethnarch. Annexation
of coastal cities, Samaritis, and Idumaea. Hyrcanus is
opposed by the Pharisees. The embarrassing part of this
fiasco is that Simon and his sons attended a banquet held in
their honor by Ptolemy, and they were drunk when Ptolemy's
men murdered Simon. The two sons were spared only briefly,
then executed, too. *129 BCE*
Antiochus VII (138-129 BCE) of Syria dies. *116 BCE*
Ptolemy VIII (116-81 BCE) of Egypt. *104 BCE*
John Hyrcanus I (135/4-104 BCE) high priest and ethnarch of
Judaea dies. Aristobulus I (104-103 BCE) becomes high priest
and king for about one year. Annexation of Galilee. *103 BCE*
Aristobulus I (104-103 BCE) dies. His brother Alexander
Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) high priest and king. He marries his
brother's widow, Alexandra Salome, as required by Judaic
law. Annexation of remaining coastal cities, the Greek
cities east of Jordan, and Peraea. Alexander is resisted by
the Pharisees.
*100 BCE*
*82 BCE*
Sulla (82-79 BCE) Dictator of Rome. *81 BCE*
Ptolemy IX (81-80 BCE) of Egypt. *76 BCE*
Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) dies. Jannaeus' widow
Alexandra Salome (76-67 BCE) queen. His son, Hyrcanus II (I:
76-67 BCE), becomes high priest. *73 BCE*
Birth of Herod the Great (73-4 BCE).
*70 BCE*
*68 BCE*
Antiochus XIII (68-67 BCE) of Syria. *67 BCE* Hyrcanus II
high priest and king (67 BCE, three months). Antipater is
his minister. Hyrcanus II is deposed by his brother
Aristobulus II (67-63 BCE) who becomes both king and high
priest. *66 BCE*
Pompey takes over command from Lucullus and campaigns (66-63
BCE) in Asia. *66 - 63 BCE*
Pompey's campaigns in East. Annexation of Syria as a province.
* Return to M.
A. Hoselton's Dead Sea Scrolls Resources
*
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*63 BCE*
Pompey's siege of Jerusalem. Aristobulus II taken prisoner
by Pompey after the fall of Jerusalem. Judaea becomes a
Roman province. Hyrcanus II (II: 63-40 BCE) reinstated as
high priest and ethnarch. Antipater (father of Herod the
Great) is still his chief minister and increasingly
powerful. Aristobulus II and sons taken to Rome. Cities on
coast and east of Jordan detached from Judaea. Between
father and son the Dynasty of Antipater and Herod eventually
supplants the Hasmonaeans. *62 BCE*
Return of Pompey to Rome with Hebrew prisoners.
*60 BCE*
*58 BCE*
Caesar's Gallic Wars (58-51 BCE). *57 - 55 BCE*
Unsuccessful attempts to reinstate Aristobulus and sons.
Gabinius governor of Syria. *55 BCE*
Judaean help to Gabinius in Egypt. Temple treasure seized by
Crassus. Antipater appointed governor of Palestine. *55 - 53 BCE*
Crassus governor of Syria *53 - 51 BCE*
Cassius governor of Syria.
*50 BCE*
*50 BCE*
Cleopatra VII (51-30 BCE) of Egypt. *49 - 45 BCE*
Civil war between Caesar and Pompeians. *49 BCE*
Death of Aristobulus II and elder son. *48 BCE*
Death of Pompey at Pharsalus. *48/7 BCE*
Judaean help to Caesar in Egypt. *47 BCE*
Caesar in Judaea. Hyrcanus II's position confirmed. Power
and honors given to Antipater. Joppa restored. Rebuilding of
walls of Jerusalem authorized. Herod in Galilee. *47 - 46 BCE*
Sextus Caesar in Syria. *46 BCE*
Herod in Syria. *44 BCE*
Murder of Caesar in Rome. *43 - 42 BCE*
Civil war between Caesarians and 'liberators'. Cassius (the
'liberator') in Syria. *43 BCE*
Mt Etna erupts. Cassius demands money. *42 BCE*
Battle of Philippi. Death of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi.
*40 BCE*
*40 BCE*
Parthian invasion of Syria and Palestine. Antigonus II, son
of Aristobulus II, occupied the throne and was high priest
(43-37 BCE) with Parthian support. Death of Phasel. In Rome,
Herod appointed king. Herod begins his campaigns for
possession of Palestine. *40 - 31 BCE*
Qumran was damaged either by an earthquake (31 BCE, known to
have occurred in Palestine from the works of Josephus) or an
attack (possibly as early as 40 BCE during the Parthian
invasion). Originally, thought by de Vaux to have been
abandoned after this event. This now appears to be unlikely.
The consensus has shifted toward more or less continuous
occupation with continuity in both pottery and life style of
the inhabitants. Therefore, it become more probable that the
same people simply moved back in immediately, or shortly,
after the event.
Continuous occupation scenarios appeal to me because I am
still playing with the idea that Qumran acted as a point of
entry for goods arriving by boat from south and east of the
Dead Sea. That might have necessitated some official
presence on a more or less continuous basis. Consistent with
this and suggested by others, is that it might also have
provided a holding area for people who were forbidden to
enter Jerusalem. Some think the graves at the site contain
the ill and infirm who were not allowed to continue to
Jerusalem and had no way to return.
The fortified nature of the buildings may have been
inadequate for a frontier fortress like those at Masada or
Machaerus. It was, however, quite adequate for a small
lightly armed staff to keep the peace, guard the boats, and
monitor the goods and people seeking to gain access to
Jerusalem by boat from beyond the Dead Sea.
*40 - 4 BCE*
Nominal reign of Herod the Great. Early reports suggested
that no coins from this period were found at Qumran leading
to speculation that it was abandoned during this entire
period. During the early years of Herod's nominal reign,
Antigonus II (40-37 BCE) controlled Jerusalem and parts of
Palestine. *39 - 38 BCE*
Roman campaigns against Parthia. East under Mark Antony's
control; Antony dominated by Cleopatra. *37 BCE*
Herod (37-4 BCE) captures Jerusalem with Sosius and assumes
the throne. Herod's marriage to Mariamme I. Antigonus II
deposed and, possibly, executed. He may not have been
executed until 18 BCE. End of the Hasmonaean dynasty and the
beginning of the Herodian Dynasty. *36 BCE*
Murder of high priest, Mariamme's brother. Parthians defeat
Antony. */c./ 35 BCE*
Coastal cities, including Joppa, given to Cleopatra by Anthony. *32 BCE*
War between Herod and Malchus of Nabataea. *31 BCE*
Execution of Hyrcanus II. Defeat of Antony and Cleopatra by
Octavian (Augustus) in a naval battle at Actium.
*30 BCE*
*30 BCE*
Herod's position confirmed by Octavian. Coastal cities and
Greek cities east of Jordan restored. Egypt annexed to Roman
as a province. */c./ 30 BCE*
Malchus of Nabataea succeeded by Obodas.
*Roman Emperors*
Augustus (30 BCE - 14 CE)
Tiberius (14-37)
Gaius Caligula (37-41)
Claudius (41-54)
Nero (54-69)
Vespasian (69-79)
Titus (79-81)
Domitian (81-96)
Nerva (96-98)
Trajan (98-117)
Hadrian (117-138)
Antoninus Pius (138-161)
Marcus Aurelius (161-180)
Septimus Severus (193-211)
Geta, Caracalla (209-217)
Diocletian (284-305)
*29 BCE*
Murder of Mariamme I. *27/6 BCE*
Octavian is given the name 'Augustus' and becomes emperor of
Rome (27 BCE - 14 CE). Sebaste founded by Herod (named for
Sebastos, ie Augustus). *23 BCE*
Auranitis, Trachonitis and Batanaea added to Herod's kingdom. */c./ 23 BCE*
Herod married to Mariamme II. *23 BCE*
Rebuilding of the Temple begins.
*20 BCE*
*20 BCE*
Paneas, Ulatha and Gaulanitis added to Herod's kingdom. *18 BCE*
Work begins on Herod's Temple. *16 BCE*
Herod's first visit to Rome. *12 BCE*
Herod's second visit to Rome. Trial of Alexander and
Aristobulus (both sons of Herod the Great by Mariamme I).
Border trouble with Nabataea.
*10 BCE*
*/c./ 7 BCE*
Execution of Alexander and Aristobulus. */c./ 6 BCE*
The Gospels of Matthew and Luke date the birth of Jesus of
Nazareth to the last years of Herod's reign (ca. 12 - 4 BCE). *5 BCE*
Episode with the golden eagle on the Temple gate. *4 BCE*
Execution of Antipater III (son of Herod the Great by
Doris). Death of Herod the Great (March). Civil war.
Division of the kingdom, by Augustus during his adjudication
of Herod's will, between Philip (Tetrarch of Batanaea,
Trachonitis, Auranitis and some parts of Zenodorus' domain
near Paneas - with a revenue of 100 talents: 4 BCE - 34 CE),
Herod Antipas (Tetrarch of Peraea and Galilee - with a
revenue of 200 talents: 4 BCE - 39 CE), and Archelaus
(Ethnarch of Idumaea, Judaea and Samaritis - with a revenue
of 400 talents: 4 BCE - 6 CE). *4 BCE*
In de Vaux's original timeline, Qumran was reoccupied by
Jewish sectarians around this time. Now it appears that it
may never have been entirely abandoned. In either event, it
was continuously occupied from about this time by Judaeans
of some sort, or sorts, until its capture by the Roman army
close to 70 CE, after which it was occupied by Roman forces
until the turn of the century. */c./1 BCE*
World Population estimates = 170 - 400 million.
*Beginning of the Common Era*
*6 CE*
Deposition of Archelaus from the Ethnarchy by Augustus for
his misgovernment of Judaeans and Samaritans alike.
Annexation of Judaea, which included Judaea, Idumaea and
Samaria (plus Qumran), as a province. The province was ruled
by various Roman governors (6-41 CE). Among these was
Pontius Pilate (27-37 CE). *6 CE*
Coponius Roman Prefect (6 -/c./9) of Judaea. */c./ 6 CE*
Augustus appointed Annas (Ananus I) ben Seth High Priest (6
-15) of Jerusalem Temple ("House of Annas" produced 8 High
Priests of Judaea). */c./ 9 - /c./ 12 CE*
Ambivius Roman Prefect of Judaea.
*10 CE*
*/c./ 10 CE*
Death of Salome. */c./ 12 CE*
Rufus Roman Prefect (/c./ 12 - 15) of Judaea. *14 CE*
Accession of Tiberius (14 - 37). *15 CE*
Gratus: Roman Prefect (15 - 26) of Judaea. *16 CE*
Eleazar, son of Annas (6-15), appointed High Priest (16 -17)
of Jerusalem Temple. *18 CE*
Joseph Caiaphas (18 - 36), son-in-law of Annas (6 -15),
appointed High Priest of Jerusalem Temple by Prefect
Valerius Gratus, deposed by Syrian Legate Vitellius.
Archelaus dies, 12 years after being deposed from the
Ethnarchy. */c./ 19 CE*
Herod Antipas moved Galilaean capital from Sepphoris to his
new Tiberius.
*20 CE*
*26 CE*
Pontius Pilate governor (26 - 36) of Samaria, Judaea, and
Idumaea. */c./ 29 CE*
John the Baptist, in the "15th year of Tiberius" [Lk3:1-2],
who is identified equivocally as a "Nazirite"? [Lk1:15], was
arrested and killed by Herod Antipas [Lk3:19-20].
*30 CE*
*/c./ 30 CE*
Shammai the Elder founded Bet Shammai Torah school. *30 or 33 or 36 CE*
Crucifixion of Christ. Possible Friday 14 Nisan crucifixion
dates: April 7, 30 CE, April 3, 33 CE, March 30, 36 CE.
Friday 15 Nisan is another popular date. */c./ 34 CE*
Death of Philip. *36 CE*
Marcellus Roman Prefect (36 - 37) of Judaea. *36 CE*
Agrippa I (36 - 37) in Rome. Jonathan appointed Jerusalem
High Priest (36 - 37) by Syrian Legate Vitellius. */c./ 37 CE*
Conversion of Saul of Tarsus ("Paul"); a Roman citizen. *37*
Marullus: Roman Prefect (37 - /c./ 41) of Judaea. A Governor
not mentioned by Josephus. *37 CE*
Accession of Gaius ("Caligula": b. 12; 37 - 41) Emperor of
Rome. *37 CE*
Birth of Josephus (?). Appointment of Herod Agrippa I king
(37 - 41) (of Philip and Lysanias' tetrarchies). In 40,
Herod Antipas' Galilee and Peraea tetrarchies were added to
Agrippa I. *38 CE*
Greek - Jewish riots in Alexandria. *39 CE*
Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee exiled to the Pyrenees.
This event is not mentioned in any of the biblical accounts
of the time. *39 - 40 CE*
Greek-Jewish riots in Antioch. Jewish protest at Ptolemais.
*40 CE*
*40 CE*
Gaius' attack on the Temple. */c./ 40 CE*
Septuagint: 4 Maccabees written in Greek in Alexandria. Paul
went to Jerusalem (1st trip?) to meet Peter and James. *40 - 41 CE*
Agrippa I in Rome. *41 CE*
Province of Judaea disbanded and made into Agrippa I's
kingdom (41-44 CE). Accession of Claudius (b. 10 BCE; 41 -
54) Emperor or Rome. *41 CE*
By this time both Galilee and Judaea had been transferred to
King Agrippa, reuniting Palestine for the first time since 6
CE under a single non-Roman monarch (even though he was a
puppet king of Rome). *44 CE*
Province of Judaea reconstituted after the death of Agrippa
I, with Galilee and Peraea included. James, the brother of
John, executed by the sword by Agrippa I. C. Cuspius Fadus:
Roman Procurator (44 - 46 CE) of Judaea (including Samaria,
Judaea, Idumaea). Theudas beheaded for parting the Jordan
(as the Red Sea was parted in Exodus).
*45 CE*
*/c./ 45 CE*
Jacob and Simon, sons of Judah of Gamala, crucified. Philo
Judaeus of Alexandria (b.30 BCE), Jewish philosopher and
hellenizer, tried to unify Greek and Hebrew philosophy. *46/47 CE*
Paul's first journey. Council at Jerusalem. *?46 - 48 CE*
Tiberius Julius Alexander Roman Procurator of Judaea, an
apostate Jew. *47 CE*
Ananias ben Nedebaeus appointed Jerusalem High Priest (47 -
59) by Herod of Chalcis. */c./ 47-48 CE*
Paul on Cyprus with Barnabas. *48 CE*
Ventidius Cumanas Roman Procurator (48 - 52) Judaea
(Samaria, Judaea, Idumaea). Agrippa II, King of Judaea (48 -
93), ruled first from Chalcis (48-52) and then from Iturea
(52-93). *48 - 49? CE*
Council of Apostles & Elders, the 1st Christian Council,
also an incident at Antioch where Paul publicly condemned
Peter. */c./ 49 - 50 CE*
Paul in Corinth (center of his mission to the Gentiles).
*50 CE*
*50 CE*
Passover riot in Jerusalem leaves 20-30,000 killed. *52 CE*
M. Antonius Felix, a Greek Freedman, Roman Procurator
(52-/c./ 60) of Judaea. Arrest and imprisonment of St. Paul.
M. Antonius Felix: massacred an "Egyptian Prophet" and c.
30,000 unarmed participants during an Exodus reenactment in
55 CE and in c. 58 CE he crushed a Jewish revolt in Caesarea. *53 - 63 CE*
Parthian War with Rome. *54 CE*
Claudius poisoned by his wife Agrippina. Accession of Nero
(b. 37; 54-68) Emperor of Rome, last of the Julio-Claudian line.
*55 CE*
*/c./ 57 CE*
Paul makes his last visit to Jerusalem. */c./ 58 CE*
Paul is imprisoned in Caesarea. "Quarrel in Caesarea
referred to Nero" - could this be Paul? *59 CE*
Nero killed his mother Agrippina. *58/9 - 62 CE*
Porcius Festus Roman Procurator. Trial of St. Paul and
appeal to Nero (because as a Roman citizen he was entitled
to such an appeal).
*60 CE*
*/c./ 60 CE*
Paul sent to Rome and imprisoned. *60 CE*
Porcius Festus, Roman Procurator (60 - 62). */c./ 62 CE*
Paul martyred for treason in Rome? Nero killed his wife
Octavia, and married Poppaea Sabina. *62 CE*
Lucceius Albinus, Roman Procurator (62 - 64) of Judaea.
"Being a heartless Sadducee, Ananus {II} thinking that he
had a favorable opportunity, because Festus had died and
Albinus was still on his way, called a meeting [literally,
"sanhedrin"] of judges and brought into it the brother of
Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah, James by name, and some others.
He made the accusation that they had transgressed the law,
and he handed them over to be stoned." [JA 20.9.1, Marginal
Jew, p.57] *64 CE*
Fire of Rome (July 18). Nero blamed the Christians. Gessius
Florus Roman Procurator (64 - 66) of Judaea (Samaria,
Judaea, Idumaea), a Greek from Asia Minor. He raided the
Temple setting off the Jewish rebellion of 66-73. The first
persecution of the Christians began in Rome. The Romans
generally made little or no distinction between Christians
and Jews, considering them ethnically, culturally, and
religiously, one and the same people. Thanks to Paul's
efforts this had already begun to change, but at the time
and to a Roman, the differences might not yet have been
discernable.
*65 CE*
*66 CE*
Nero entered the Olympic Games and won. Nero freed Greece
from Roman administration. Nero also ordered the suicide of
his courtier Petronius. Roman Legate of Syria Cestius Gallus
forced to retreat from Judaea. *66 - 74 CE*
The First Revolt of the Palestinian Jews against Rome. *66 - 69 CE*
Tiberius Julius Alexander prefect of Syria. *66 CE*
Cestius Gallus in Jerusalem at Passover. Riots in Caesarea.
Riots in Alexandria. Anti-Semitic uprisings in cities of Syria. *66 CE, May*
Outbreak of war. Florus' attack on Jerusalem. Masada
captured by Sacarii. *66 CE, September*
Roman troops driven out of Jerusalem. *66 CE, November*
Defeat of Cestius at Beth-horon. Appointment of Josephus and
five other regional commanders. *67 CE*
Arrival of Roman General Vespasianus (Vespasian) and Titus.
Anti-Semitic riots in Antioch. Peter, first Pope?, first
bishop of Antioch?, martyred (crucified?) in Rome? Pope
Linus (67 - 78). *67 CE, July*
Capture of Jotapata. Vespasian conquers most of Galilee. *67 CE, October*
Capture of Gamala. In Jerusalem, arrival of John of
Gischala; his alliance with the Zealots; deposition of high
priest; faction fighting.
*68 CE*
Nero dethroned and on June 9 committed suicide. Accession of
Galba, Roman Emperor (June 68 - January 69, assassinated). *Sometime between 68 and 70 CE*
Qumran is captured by Roman forces, either shortly before or
shortly after the fall of Jerusalem. Other fortresses known
to have been captured after the fall of Jerusalem include
Herodium, Machaerus, and Masada making it somewhat more
likely that Qumran fell as part of the general offensive
against the Jews in the Judaean Wilderness after the fall of
the capital rather than before. (It is also possible that
Qumran was taken and occupied before the offensive on
Jerusalem. It is too small to justify diverting the entire
army, but its occupiers may have been enough of an annoyance
to justify installing a small garrison in order to monitor
the army's flank.) If Qumran was taken after the fall of
Jerusalem, the Tenth Roman Legion moved directly on
Jerusalem after capturing Jericho and the area south of
Jericho as far as the tip of the Dead Sea. *68 CE*
Subjugation of most of Judaea, Idumaea and Peraea. Romans
inactive from /c./ July. Simon, son of Gioras, in control of
parts of Judaea and Idumaea. In Jerusalem, reinforcements
summoned from Idumaea; alliance between John and Zealots ended. *69 CE*
Simon admitted into Jerusalem; fighting between him, John of
Gischala and Zealots. *69 CE, January*
Murder of Galba. Otho, Roman Emperor (January 69 - April 69,
assassinated). *69 CE, Spring*
Roman recovery of territory lost to Simon. *69 CE, April*
Death of Otho. Vitellius, Roman Emperor (April 69 - December
69, assassinated). *69 CE, July*
Vespasian (69-79 CE) proclaimed Emperor of Rome. *69 CE Autumn*
Titus left in command by Vespasian, who moved to Egypt. *69 CE, December*
Death of Vitellius and Flavian victory. By appointment of
the Roman Senate, Vespasian (b. 9) proclaimed Roman Emperor
(December 69 - June 23, 79) while still in Egypt. (Founder
of the Flavian Dynasty (69-96), built the Colosseum, quelled
Roman & Jerusalem revolts.)
*70 CE*
*70 CE - Overview*
The year 70 CE, as Hershel Shanks puts it, has served as an
impenetrable wall to the study of early Judaism and
Christianity. With the destruction of Jerusalem, and all
that entails, almost all documentary evidence of
intertestamental Judaism was also destroyed. We have some,
but in fact very little, information about only four Jewish
sects from the period immediately preceding the destruction
of the City (Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and Christians).
What little we know about the differences among them comes
only from later writers.
The earliest post-destruction Jewish writings (the Mishnah)
date from 200 CE. Among Christian documents, only Paul's
letters and, possibly, the gospel of Mark were written
before the destruction. Everything else was later. Even the
books of Josephus, which were written shortly after the
destruction, introduce the additional complicating factor
that they were written for a Roman audience who were not
interested in the sectarian questions that interest most of
us today.
In other words, there is no documentary evidence about
sectarian Judaism from the intertestamental period that has
not been filtered through the biases of later generations;
until we come to the Dead Sea Scrolls. Here for the first
time we encounter writings that may come from one or more
sects that were not previously part of the "known" cast of
conventionally recognized groups. Not surprisingly, most
modern scholars have tried to fit these writings onto one of
the known groups (Essenes, dissident Saducees, or the
Hassidim, for example). They are missing a terrific
opportunity to break open the doors to understanding this
period by not at least considering other possibilities.
More than half of the texts discovered at Qumran were
unknown to modern biblical and Jewish scholars prior to
their discovery at Qumran. Scholars seem not to have noticed
what this implies about the state of intertestamental
Judaism prior to the destruction of Jerusalem. It suggests
the possibility, if not the likelihood, that among the
thousands of books destroyed there were likely to be more
thousands of books that we still know nothing about. The
diversity of Judaism during that period has still not been
fully appreciated, but that does not mean it was not a fact
of life at the time.
If anything, this brings into even sharper focus that
apparent intention of the early Christians to remain Jews,
in the fullest sense of that word, for decades after Jesus'
death. The differences of opinion between James, called the
Brother of Jesus, and Paul seem now to have been dominated
by this specific dividing line. Paul wanted to include
non-Jews, and to allow modifications to Jewish laws to
accommodate them (no circumcision required, for example),
while James and his followers still considered themselves
Jews, intended for their sect to remain Jewish, and expected
their members to all be Jews. One can predict, on the basis
that Paul's faction won, that Christian writings have also
been purged of this earlier tradition. It also explains why
the "Church in Jerusalem" seems to have died out without a
whimper. James and Mary and most of the unknown members of
that church were literally cut out of the history of
Christianity by later Church fathers who purged the
Christian literature as surely as the Roman destruction of
Jerusalem purged much of the Jewish literature.
*70 CE*
Return of Vespasian to Rome. Sack of Jerusalem by Roman
Armies occupying Judaea. End of the Second Temple Period. *70 CE, Spring*
Siege of Jerusalem by the Roman army begins. *70 CE, May*
Two outer northern walls of Jerusalem captured by the Roman
besieging army. Circumvallation built. *70 CE, July*
Antonia fortress in Jerusalem recaptured by Titus, eldest
son of Vespasian. *70 CE, August*
Titus conquers Jerusalem and the Temple stormed and burnt.
All Jews are banned from the city. *70 CE, September*
Upper City captured and burnt. *70/1 CE, Winter*
Fire in Antioch. *71 CE, Spring*
Titus visits Jerusalem. *71 CE, Summer*
Triumph of Vespasian and Titus. *71 CE, Autumn?*
Capture of the fortress at Herodium. *72 CE*
Capture of the fortress at Machaerus. Battle of Jardes forest. *72 - 73 CE*
Trouble in Alexandria and Egypt; Temple of Onias closed. *73 CE, May*
The fortress at Masada, after a long siege by the Roman
army, falls. Its defenders, mostly or exclusively Zealots,
commit mass suicide the night before the fortress is
captured. Only a hand full of survivors are captured alive.
This marks the end of the First Revolt of the Jews against Rome.
*75 CE*
*79 CE*
Pope Anacletus (79 - 91, "blameless?") *79 CE, June*
Titus (b. 39), eldest son of Vespasian, Roman Emperor (June
23, 79 - September 13, 81). *79 CE, August*
Pliny the Elder (b. 23) dies during the eruption of Vesuvius
on August 24, which buries Pompeii and Herculaneum. *81 CE, September*
Domitianus (b. 51), Roman Emperor (September 13, 81 -
September 18, 96), Vespasianus' youngest son. */c./ 90 - 91 CE*
Rabbis assembled at Jamnia (Yavneh) for the "Council of
Jamnia" to formulate the biblical canon. */between/ 90 - 96 BCE*
The Book of Revelation makes its first appearance. *91 CE*
Pope Clement I (91 - 101); wrote to Corinth in 95. *94 CE*
"Jewish Antiquities" by Josephus, written in Aramaic,
translated into Greek. *96 CE*
Nerva (b. 35?), Roman Emperor (September 18, 96 - January
25, 98). Nerva instituted law reform; adopted Trajan and
named him his successor. *98 CE*
Trajanus (Trajan, b. 53?), Roman Emperor (January 25, 98 -
August 8, 117), Nerva's chosen successor. The Roman Empire
reached its maximum extent under Trajan. Under his reign are
the following accomplishments; Roman Arch Aqueduct at
Segovia, Spain; annexations of Dacia (Romania 106-1453),
Arabia (106-c630), Armenia (114-162), Mesopotamia (114-115).
An extensive revolt occurred (115-117) when Procurator
Lucius Quietus provoked Kitos War in Jerusalem. Revolt
spread to Libya, Cyrenaica, Egypt, Cyprus, Mesopotamia. That
ended the Roman eastward expansion.
*100 CE*
*/c./ 100 CE*
Josephus (37? - c. 100), Jewish general, turncoat,
historian, hellenist, dies in Rome. Among his extant works
are included JW=Jewish War (71); AA=Against Apion (c. 90);
JA=Jewish Antiquities (94).
Masoretes at Tiberias compiling Masora (MT), standard
Scriptures of Judaism.
*116 - 117 CE*
Jewish uprisings in Palestine, Egypt and Mesopotamia. *132 - 135 CE*
Bar Kochba Revolt. Jerusalem razed and Aelia Capitolina
built on the site.
*200 CE*
World Population estimates = 190 - 256 million.
In Sepphoris at about this time, Judah ha-Nasi compiled the
Mishnah.