mirrored file at http://SaturnianCosmology.Org/ For complete access to all the files of this collection see http://SaturnianCosmology.org/search.php ========================================================== Note: this is part of an electronic companion that supplements Kevin Greene's book [1]Archaeology: an introduction (1995); click on the title to start from the home page. CHAPTER 4: DATING THE PAST [2]COPYRIGHT STATEMENT 1. [3]BACKGROUND 2. [4]HISTORICAL DATING 3. [5]TYPOLOGY 4. [6]SEQUENCE DATING AND SERIATION 5. [7]THE ADVENT OF SCIENTIFIC DATING TECHNIQUES 6. [8]ENVIRONMENTAL METHODS: [9]6.1 Tree rings, [10]6.2 Varves, [11]6.3 Pollen, [12]6.4 Sea bed deposits, [13]6.5 Ice sheet cores 7. [14]ABSOLUTE TECHNIQUES: [15]7.1 Radioactive decay, [16]7.2 Radiocarbon, [17]7.4 Potassium-argon, [18]7.5 Uranium series 8. [19]RADIOACTIVE EFFECTS ON CRYSTAL STRUCTURE: [20]8.1 Thermoluminescence, [21]8.2 Electron spin resonance ('ESR'), [22]8.3 Fission-track 9. [23]DERIVATIVE TECHNIQUES: [24]9.1 Fluorine, uranium and nitrogen, [25]9.2 Amino acid racemization, [26]9.3 Obsidian hydration, [27]9.4 Archaeomagnetism, [28]9.5 Cation-Ratio ('CR') 10. [29]THE AUTHENTICITY OF ARTEFACTS _Do you know a web site that would fit well into one of these sections? If so, please [30]e-mail me!_ [31]Return to introductory page OR [32]skip to previous chapter (3) OR [33]skip to next chapter (5) _________________________________________________________________ 1 BACKGROUND [34]Go back to chapter heading 'Dating is the key to organising all archaeological evidence. Furthermore, the development of dating methods, whether 'traditional' or scientific, illustrates the ingenuity and lateral thinking that make archaeological problem-solving such a fascinating exercise. ... At the beginning of the twentieth century it must still have been inconceivable that reliable dates could ever be established for European prehistory, other than those that depended on tenuous connections between Egypt and the Aegean in the second millennium BC. ... Not until 1950 did absolute dates become a reality for prehistoric archaeology in areas outside Scandinavia and the south-west of the United States, where varves and tree-rings had begun to provided a locally applicable dating method some decades earlier.' (p. 101) _________________________________________________________________ 2 HISTORICAL DATING [35]Go back to chapter heading 'Ultimately archaeologists and historians share the same general objectives; the principal contrasts lie in the kinds of evidence that they explore, and the different aspects of the human past that they are able to address most successfully with the material or documentary information available to them.' (p. 104) * [36]NEW - Roman military sites in Britain 'A non-specialist's introduction to the fortresses, forts, watchtowers, temporary camps, depots and industrial sites, built by the Roman Army in Britain.' (Peter Green). Folow the link to _military events_ to see maps of forts founded in different periods. * [37]American Society of Greek and Latin Epigraphy (ASGLE) * [38]University of Michigan Papyrology Collection Ancient texts recovered in Egypt * [39]Thera and the Explosion A bibliography by Richard Foulkes about a knotty problem in dating a specific site, where historical and archaeological sources are not yet in agreement (Part of _Chloris_, a searchable bibliography of the Bronze Age archaeology of mainland Greece and Crete). See also [40]The Thera (Santorini) Volcanic Eruption website about Sturt W. Manning's book _A test of time_. _________________________________________________________________ 3 TYPOLOGY [41]Go back to chapter heading 'Typology has not been superseded, but radiocarbon dates have reduced the burden of prehistoric chronology that it was once made to carry (fig. 4.5). Type-series remain an extremely useful means of describing and classifying artefacts of any period, and for understanding their technology and function.' (p. 105) * [42]Roman amphoras in Britain An article by Paul Tyers in [43]Internet Archaeology * NB: see also [44]Chapter 1 4.2 _________________________________________________________________ 4 SEQUENCE DATING AND SERIATION [45]Go back to chapter heading 'Seriation ... has been applied to finds from grave groups, strata, or other kinds of assemblages, whether found on individual sites or over a wider area. It works best on assemblages that contain a range of definable characteristics, such as types of pottery or flints, especially those that are subject to change rather than continuity. ... Seriation is only a relative dating method, but it remains useful in the study of finds that do not occur on stratified sites where the sequence is revealed by excavation; like artefact typologies, it is now used within an absolutely dated framework.' (p. 107) _________________________________________________________________ 5 THE ADVENT OF SCIENTIFIC DATING TECHNIQUES [46]5.1 Geological time-scales; [47]Go back to chapter heading '...archaeologists tend to forget that geology had already undergone a revolution in scientific dating during the first half of the twentieth century. Seen in the context of the development of dating methods over the previous century, radiocarbon does not seem quite as dramatic as it is sometimes portrayed.' (p. 107) _Note: for the latest authoritative book on scientific dating see: R. E. Taylor and Martin J. Aitken, eds. Chronometric Dating in Archaeology. Advances in Archaeological and Museum Science, vol. 2. New York: Plenum Press, 1997. xix + 395 pp. Figures, tables, bibliographies, and index. $95.00 (cloth), ISBN 0-306-45715-6._ There is also a comprehensive and detailed review: * Reviewed for H-NEXA by Charles C. Kolb, National Endowment for the Humanities, [48](part 1), [49](part 2). * [50]Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art A major facility at Oxford University * [51]Archaeometry Research Group (Heidelberg, Germany) Links to several specialised dating techniques * [52]Archaeometry and Stonehenge An example of the application of modern scientific dating to a major prehistoric site (English Heritage) * [53]Archaeometric Resources on the World Wide Web J. Burton, University of Wisconsin * [54]The Thera (Santorini) Volcanic Eruption and the Absolute Chronology of the Aegean Bronze Age. A WWW companion site to: Sturt W. Manning, _A test of time: the volcano of Thera and the chronology and history of the Aegean and east Mediterranean in the mid second millennium BC_ (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 1999). Fascinating site that has placed unusual demands upon the interpretation of scientific dating methods because of conflicts with traditional historical and archaeological dating. 5.1 Geological time-scales 'Nineteenth-century geologists were preoccupied with the age of the Earth, and Darwin's demand for gradual evolution underlined the length of the time-scales involved. ...estimates of geological time underwent a transition from informed guesswork to scientific precision in the fifty years that followed the publication of Darwin's _Origin of Species_ in 1859. *Accurate knowledge of the age of the Earth was of little direct help to archaeologists, but it emphasised the potential of scientific dating techniques. The first half of the twentieth century witnessed a similar transition that began with the dating of recent geological periods when early humans first lived, and ended with the introduction of radiocarbon dating.' (p. 108-9) * [55]UC-Berkeley Museum of Paleontology Useful pages on geological time and evolution * NB: see also [56]Chapter 1 1.3 _________________________________________________________________ 6 ENVIRONMENTAL METHODS [57]6.1 Tree ring dating (dendrochronology); [58]6.2 Varves; [59]6.3 Pollen analysis; [60]6.4 Sea bed deposits; [61]6.5 Ice sheet cores; [62]Go back to chapter heading 6.1 Tree ring dating (dendrochronology) 'It had been recognised since at least the fifteenth century that trees produce annual growth rings, and their physiology was well understood by the eighteenth century. ... Because annual growth rings are subject to seasonal factors that affect their thickness, distinctive patterns recognised in different samples of timber may be compared and used to establish their contemporaneity.' (p. 109) * [63]Wiener Laboratory for Aegean and Near Eastern Dendrochronology Based at Cornell University, this site also includes links to other dendrochronology laboratories around the world * [64]ULTIMATE WEB PAGES ABOUT TREE RINGS AND TREE-RING RESEARCH What's new?, Resources, Links to Tree-Ring Sites, Software, Principles, Classic References, a Photo Gallery.. Henri D. Grissino-Mayer * [65]Sheffield Dendrochronology Laboratory Includes 'What is Dendrochronology?' * [66]Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research University of Arizona * [67]Laboratoire Romand de Dendrochronologie Beautifully illustrated Swiss site (in French) with explanatory photographs that speak for themselves. 6.2 Varves 'Sections cut through lake beds in glacial regions reveal a regular annual pattern of coarse and fine layers, known as varves. Variations in climate produced observable differences in the thickness of sediments, and, like the patterns of variation in tree-rings, this allows comparisons to be made between deposits in separate lake beds. ... Varves allowed the end of the last Ice Age to be dated with confidence to around 6800 BC and provided the first extension of 'calendar' dates into European prehistory.' (p. 112) 6.3 Pollen analysis 'Pollen that has accumulated in deep deposits such as peat-bogs supplies a sequential record of changes in vegetation since the last Ice Age, for variations in temperature and rainfall resulted in periods of markedly different plant and tree populations in the past. ... Since climatic zones established from pollen have been dated absolutely by radiocarbon, they are no longer required as chronological indicators; nevertheless, pollen analysis continues to supply important evidence for the interpretation of the ancient environment.' (p. 112-13) * [68]Palynology Page University of Arizona: 'PALYNOLOGY is the branch of science dealing with microscopic, decay-resistant remains of certain plants and animals. It has many applications including archaeological palynology, Quaternary palynology, and stratigraphic palynology.' There are links to each of these topics. 6.4 Sea bed deposits 'Deep sediments exist on the sea-bed, representing a slow accumulation of shells and skeletal material from dead marine creatures. Cores ... extracted from these deposits reveal variations in oxygen isotopes in the shelly material, caused by fluctuations in the volume of the ocean that reflect global temperatures and ice ages. A pattern of climatic variation is derived from temperature-sensitive species of marine fauna and from measurements of oxygen isotopes. It correlates with geological evidence for cold and warm periods that are dated according to deviations in the Earth's orbit around the sun.' (p. 113) * [69]Paleolimnology/Diatom Home Pages Biology Department, Indiana University. These deal mainly with fresh-water rather than marine deposits, but the principles are similar. 6.5 Ice sheet cores 'Each winter's snowfall creates a distinct layer, and the annual layers have been counted back almost 6000 years in a core more than two kilometres in depth, with an excellent level of reliability within around 50 years... The thickness of each layer varies, as do the proportions of different oxygen isotopes whose formation is known to reflect temperature; thus, long-term patterns of variation reflect changes in climatic conditions. ... Some layers of ice contain high levels of dust and acidity caused by volcanic eruptions. Volcanoes known from historical records, such as Krakatoa (1883) or Vesuvius (AD 79), can be correlated with ice-cores; further undocumented eruptions in prehistoric times may also be detected.' (p. 113) * [70]National Ice Core Laboratory University of Colorado: '...a facility for storing, curating, and studying ice cores recovered from the polar regions of the world'. * [71]Mount St. Helens volcano A typical volcano that has a long history of eruptions - part of the superb Volcano World site _________________________________________________________________ 7 ABSOLUTE TECHNIQUES [72]7.1 Radioactive decay; [73]7.2 Radiocarbon dating; [74]7.3 Presenting and interpreting a radiocarbon date; [75]7.4 Potassium-argon dating; [76]7.5 Uranium series dating; [77]Go back to chapter heading '...by 1950, a number of dating techniques had emerged that could offer chronological frameworks for the study of prehistory at least as reliable as those used by historical archaeologists. Unfortunately, all required special circumstances, such as the survival of timber for tree-rings, the proximity of glacial lakes for varves, or the existence of soil conditions that favoured the preservation of pollen. However, the successful development of dating methods for geological periods ... offered the possibility that a similar, generally applicable, technique might one day be found that would give absolute dates for prehistoric archaeology.' (p. 114) 7.1 Radioactive decay 'Several scientific dating techniques exploit the phenomenon of radioactive decay, including those first used to date the age of the Earth in the early years of the twentieth century. Many elements occur in different forms, and some are unstable; these isotopes have extra neutrons besides their standard number of protons and they are designated by a number representing their atomic weight (carbon-14 or 14C). Unstable isotopes are radioactive and emit rays of particles at a known rate. The speed of decay is expressed as the half-life, the time taken for half of the total radioactivity to decay; this may vary from seconds to millions of years.' (p. 114) * [78]PRIME Lab Purdue Rare Isotope Measurement Laboratory: explanations of the principles of Accelerator mass spectrometry, and a wider look at the uses of radioacive isotopes. 7.2 Radiocarbon dating 'The rate of decay of carbon-14, which has a half-life of 5730 years, is long enough to allow samples of carbon as old as 70,000 years to contain detectable levels of radioactive emissions, but short enough for samples from periods since the late Stone Age to be measured with reasonable precision. However, the feature of carbon-14 that makes it exceptionally important is that it is absorbed naturally by all living organisms, but ceases to enter them when they die.' (p. 115) * [79]Radiocarbon This is the principal periodical for C14 dating - follow the links to further information and individual laboratories. * [80]Oxford University RLAHA Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit * [81]University of Waikato Radiocarbon dating lab (New Zealand) * [82]OCR Procedure for Dating Archaeological Features 'The effect of the biochemical degradation of charcoal and soil humic material can be measured by the ratio of the total carbon to the readily oxidizable carbon in the sample. This ratio is called the Oxidizable Carbon Ratio, or OCR.' (Douglas S. Frink) 7.3 Presenting and interpreting a radiocarbon date 'Because interpretation is so complex, all radiocarbon dates included in an archaeological publication must be presented in a standard manner. ... Archaeologists must know exactly what is being dated and, in the case of samples from excavations, their precise stratigraphic relationship to the site. The nature of charcoal and wood samples is very important - twigs or nuts are ideal, because they only contain carbon-14 taken in during a short growing season, whereas the central portion of a large tree will obviously give a date decades (or even centuries) earlier than its use for fuel or construction.' (p. 119-21) * [83]Calibration program "We are pleased to announce the HTML version of the radiocarbon program CALIB 4.2. ... Please refer to the on-line CALIB 4.1 manual for details about the calibration datasets and calculations. The HTML version uses the 1998 international radiocarbon calibration datasets..." (Paula Reimer & Minze Stuiver) * [84]Why radiocarbon measurements are not true calendar ages How radiocarbon calibration works (Oxford University RLAHA) * [85]Der Tod startet die Stoppuhr Death starts the stop-watch: 'Everytime a living being dies a stop-watch starts ticking. Science can read this watch and thus determine the age of a find.' A superbly illustrated description of radiocarbon dating from WebMuseen (Germany) 7.4 Potassium-argon dating '...so few radioactive carbon-14 isotopes remain in a sample more than 40,000 years old that it is difficult to measure the small number of particle emissions. The technique is therefore unsuitable for studying most of the Palaeolithic period; fortunately, a related method based on an isotope of potassium allows the examination of early hominid developments beyond the range of radiocarbon.' (p. 122) 7.5 Uranium series dating 'Thorium-230 is a useful isotope because it has a half-life of 75,400 years. Although coral is the ideal sample material, calcite crystals contained in stalagmite may also be sampled, and this makes it suitable for dating early human activity in caves, anywhere between 5000 and 350,000 years ago... In any case, the precise relationship between the sample and an archaeological event or activity must always be established. Uranium series dating is frequently used in conjunction with ESR (electron spin resonance), for the latter may also be carried out on the kinds of samples typical of cave finds, such as teeth, shells and stalagmite calcite.' (p. 123) _________________________________________________________________ 8 RADIOACTIVE EFFECTS ON CRYSTAL STRUCTURE [86]8.1 Thermoluminescence dating; [87]8.2 Electron spin resonance ('ESR'); [88]8.3 Fission-track dating; [89]Go back to chapter heading 'The following absolute techniques do not simply measure radioactive emissions or the products of radioactive decay; instead, they examine the effects of radioactive impurities on the crystal structure of minerals.' (p. 123) 8.1 Thermoluminescence dating 'The most important material for TL is fired clay; hearths, kilns and especially pottery form an important part of the archaeological record in most parts of the world. Since pots are fired at a temperature well above that required to release all the electrons that have been trapped in their crystal lattices, the energy released in the laboratory today will have built up from the date of their firing. The older the pots, the more energy that should have accumulated.' (p. 123) * [90]Thermoluminescence dating NEW - Kotalla TL laboratory, Germany * [91]Luminescence Dating of Pottery: Principles of Luminescence Dating University of Durham - good explanation and a details of a project (Dr. Sarah Barnett, Durham University) * [92]Luminescence Dating Laboratory, Aberystwyth 'The method was initially developed in the 1960's for dating pottery. However, since 1979 the method has also been applied to dating geological sediments, and this is the application that has been worked upon most extensively in the Aberystwyth luminescence laboratory. The method can produce ages from as low as 30-50 years, up to almost a million years'. * [93]Luminescence Laboratory University of Heidelberg * [94]Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating Sheffield Centre for International Drylands Research: 'OSL is a relatively new alternative approach to chronological problems. Both quartz and feldspar rich sediments, which are otherwise undateable by conventional radiocarbon methods, can be absolutely dated (± ~10%) within a range of 100 to 200,000 years.' 8.2 Electron spin resonance ('ESR') '...ESR has much in common with thermoluminescence, for both measure electrons that have become trapped in the crystal lattice of minerals. It differs from TL in the nature of suitable samples, which include teeth, shells and stalagmite calcite. ... ESR sample materials favour the study of the Palaeolithic period, for stalagmites may be related to cave occupation, and fossil teeth from large mammals such as mammoths may provide effective dating.' (p. 124-5) * [95]Archaeometry Research Group (Heidelberg, Germany) Follow links to ESR 8.3 Fission-track dating 'This method involves counting microscopic damage trails in minerals such as zircon, and glass, whether volcanic (e.g. obsidian) or of human manufacture. The trails are caused by fission fragments when the nucleus of uranium-238 splits during radioactive decay. ... Fission-track dating, along with potassium-argon, has also assisted in checking the age of volcanic deposits associated with early hominid remains in East Africa.' (p. 125) * [96]Archaeometry Research Group (Heidelberg, Germany) Follow links to Fission-track dating _________________________________________________________________ 9 DERIVATIVE TECHNIQUES [97]9.1 Fluorine, uranium and nitrogen tests; [98]9.2 Amino acid racemization; [99]9.3 Obsidian hydration dating; [100]9.4 Archaeomagnetic dating; [101]9.5 Cation-Ratio dating ('CR'); [102]Go back to chapter heading '...the level of thorium-230 found in a sample of stalagmite is a product of its uranium content, and the sample's age is calculated from the known radioactive half-life of thorium-230, which is not affected in any way by its environment; this method can therefore be described as _absolute_. In contrast, measurement of one form of amino acid changing to another is a _derivative_ method, for the rate of alteration is entirely dependent on the temperature of the context where the sample has been buried.' (p. 125) 9.1 Fluorine, uranium and nitrogen tests 'Buried bone absorbs water containing elements that react chemically with the bone, adding fluorine and uranium, while nitrogen decreases through the decay of bone protein (collagen). Bones found in a single context should have been subjected to the conditions that cause these changes in a uniform manner, and their levels of these three elements should therefore be very similar. Older survivals and recent intrusions should therefore be distinguishable because of unusually high or low levels.' (p. 125) 9.2 Amino acid racemization 'Samples taken from bone, teeth or shells contain detectable amino acids that undergo gradual change (racemization) from L-form to D-form over time; the ratio of the two is measured to indicate age. Since the rate of change is highly dependent on temperature it is necessary to use an independent method, such as radiocarbon, to date a sample from the same burial context. Once this has been done, the speed of racemization may be determined and other samples may be dated by this means alone.' (p. 126) 9.3 Obsidian hydration dating 'Obsidian is a natural volcanic glass that was a popular alternative to flint for making flaked tools in many parts of the world. As soon as a fresh surface of obsidian is exposed, for example during the process of making it into a tool, a microscopically thin 'hydration rim' begins to form as a result of the absorption of water. Furthermore, obsidian from different geological sources may weather at different rates.' (p. 126) * [103]Obsidian Hydration Analysis Service View samples or read about the obsidian hydration process and how archaeologists use it * [104]Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory * See also [105]Chapter 5 2.2 9.4 Archaeomagnetic dating 'Fine grains of iron oxide are present in most clay and soil, and they take on a new magnetic alignment in two main ways. Thermoremanent magnetism is acquired when they realign according to the Earth's magnetic field after having been disoriented by heating above 650 degrees C; some grains may retain the new field for hundreds of thousands of years. Magnetism is also acquired by means of the deposition of sediments, for instance in lake beds, where particles may settle into alignment with the prevailing magnetic field. ... Magnetic dating measures the alignment in an ancient sample and attempts to relate it to a record of past changes in the magnetic field.' (p. 127) 9.5 Cation-Ratio dating ('CR') 'Prehistoric rock carvings (petroglyphs) ... are commonly covered by a so-called 'rock varnish', a chemically changed layer that builds up after around 100 years through weathering, enhanced by the action of micro-organisms. ...samples are taken by scraping the 'varnish' from petroglyph surfaces back to original rock surface. A separate cation (positively charged ion) leaching curve must then be established for different geographical areas, because local soil and moisture conditions affect the speed of its formation.' (p. 128) * [106]Rock Art World-wide list of links including Europe, the US, India, and Australia * [107]Dating rock art from [108]Contemporary Approaches to World Rock Art, Department of Archaeology and Palaeoanthropology, University of New England, Australia _________________________________________________________________ 10 THE AUTHENTICITY OF ARTEFACTS [109]Go back to chapter heading 'It is inevitable that major museums that buy items for their collections become involved in expensive commercial dealings in the fine art market. The profits to be made not only stimulate illicit plundering of ancient sites, but encourage skilful forgeries. Scientific dating techniques bring obvious benefits, for precise dates are rarely required, simply an assurance that an artefact is not a modern fake.' (p. 129) _________________________________________________________________ 11 CONCLUSIONS [110]Go back to chapter heading 'Traditional forms of archaeological dating have been strengthened immeasurably by the growth of an extraordinarily diverse range of scientific techniques that helps to demonstrate the truly multi-disciplinary nature of modern archaeology. Traditional methods have not been replaced, however. The definition of sequences by means of stratigraphic excavation remains the basis for observations about sites and for typological studies of artefacts. Scientific dating techniques add precision and allow specific hypotheses about the relationships of sites, regional cultures or forms of artefacts to be tested.' (p. 129) _________________________________________________________________ [111]Return to introductory page OR [112]skip to previous chapter (3) OR [113]skip to next chapter (5) * _Please remember that all paragraphs of text from my book included in this web site are copyright, and should not be quoted without acknowledgement or copied without my permission._ References 1. file://localhost/www/sat/files/index.htm 2. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#copy 3. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#1 4. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#2 5. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#3 6. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#4 7. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#5 8. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#6 9. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#6.1 10. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#6.2 11. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#6.3 12. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#6.4 13. file://localhost/www/sat/files/chap4.htm#6.5 14. 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