mirrored file at http://SaturnianCosmology.Org/ For complete access to all the files of this collection see http://SaturnianCosmology.org/search.php ========================================================== _________________________________________________________________ Historical Background to Greek Philosophy _________________________________________________________________ * Kings of Assyria * Kings of Babylon, Neo-Babylonian Period * Kings of the Medes * Kings of Lydia * Kings of Phrygia * Kings of Egypt, Late Period + XXVI Dynasty + XXVII Dynasty + XXVIII Dynasty + XXIX Dynasty + XXX Dynasty * Great Kings of Persia, Achaemenids + Genealogy of the Achaemenids * Kings of Macedonia * Eponymous Archons of Athens * Dialects of Greek * Kings of Sparta * Consuls of the Roman Republic * The Bosporan Kingdom _________________________________________________________________ Middle Eastern Political Events During the Course of Greek Philosophy _________________________________________________________________ [INLINE] The political event that still cast its shadow in the early days of Greek philosophy was the fall of the Assyrian Empire. Reduced to a small heartland by the Aramaean migrations in the 11th century, Assyria suddenly had reasserted itself under Adadnirâri II and Ashurnasirpal II. With most of the Levant and Mesopotamia taken up with small states, there was little to stand in the way of Assyria, and in short order it became the dominant power in the Middle East. KINGS OF ASSYRIA, Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirâri II 911-891 Tukulti-Ninurta II 891-883 Ashurnasirpal II 883-859 Shalmaneser III 858-824 Shamshiadad V 823-811 Adadnirâri III 810-783 Shalmaneser IV 783-772 Ashurdân III 772-755 Ashurnirâri V 754-745 Tiglathpilesser III 744-727 Shalmaneser V 726-722 Sargonids Sargon (Sharru-kîn) II 722-705 Sennacherib (Sin-ahhę-eriba) 705-681 sack of Babylon, 689 Esarhaddon (Ashur-aha-iddin) 681-669 Ashurbanipal (Ashur-ban-aplu) 669-631 destroys Elam, 639 Ashur-etil-ilâni 631-629 Sin-shar-ishkun 629-612 Asshur falls, 614 Nineveh falls, 612 Ashur-uballit. II 612-609 This dominance lasted slightly less than 300 years, going into overdrive under the Sargonids in the last century. The kings used the title Shar-sharim, "king of kings," but their aspirations to universal rule, well served by the unprecedented extent of their conquests, foundered on the scale of the brutality and terror of their methods. Assyrian policy was to deal with rebellion by exemplary executions and forced relocations. By some estimates, over four million people were deported. The removal of the Cherokee Nation to Oklahoma in American history, called the "Trail of Tears," may give of sense of what this would have been like. Acts like the deportation of the Ten Tribes of Israel (by Shalmaneser V or Sargon II after the fall of Samaria in 722) culminated in Ashurbanipal's assault on and massacre of the Elamites, which approached in effect a genocide, since the Elamites shortly thereafter disappeared from history altogether (or were assimilated with the Persians, who styled themselves rulers of an Elamite kingdom, Anshan, and who used the Elamite language in inscriptions and some records). Although Ashurbanipal himself boasted that no Elamites were left, we know from Babylonian records that there actually were. These policies sustained a vast empire for more than a century, but many subject peoples were never reconciled to Assyrian rule, and the constant campaigns of defense and punishment ultimately exhausted the Assyrians, even though they had began assimilating conquered and imported Aramaeans into their own population and army. [INLINE] Note on the modern Assyrians [INLINE] KINGS OF THE MEDES (MEDIA) Deioces c.728-675 Phraortes 675-653 Cyaxares 653-585 overthrows Assyria, 614-609; conquers Urart.u, 585; Battle of the Eclipse, 585 Astyages 585-550 The fall of the Assyrian empire came with surprising suddenness. The Medes and the Babylonians, who cooperated in defeating Assyria, divided the Asiatic domain of the Assyrians between them. (Egypt had meanwhile liberated itself.) KINGS OF BABYLON, Dynasty X (or XI) of Babylon; the Chaldean Aramaean Dynasty; Neo-Babylonian Period Nabopolassar, Nabűaplaus.ur 625-605 overthrows Assyria, 614-609 Nebuchadnezzar, Nabűkudurrius.ur 605-562 Judah subjugated, 587 Amęl Marduk 562-560 Nergalsharus.ur 560-556 Labâshi Marduk 556 Nabonidus, Nabűna'id 556-539 The daughter of the Median king Cyaxares was married to the son, Nebuchadnezzar, of the Babylonian king Nabopolassar. The famous result of this was the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, built to assuage the homesickness of the bride for the mountains of Iran. Nabűchadnezzar, in turn, perpetuated one Assyrian practice by relocating subjects to populate the city of Babylon. The Babylonian Captivity of the Jews, after he took Jerusalem in 587, is the most famous example of that. KINGS OF LYDIA Sandonids/Tilonids Ardys I c.800? Alyattes I Myrsus (Meles) Candaules Mermnadae Gyges 685-644 Ardys II 644-615 Sadyattes 615-610 Alyattes II 610-560 Battle of the Eclipse, 585 Croesus 560-547 The Medes expanded their domain at the expense of Anatolian kingdoms, culminating in the Battle of the Eclipse on 28 May 585 BC with the Lydians. The eclipse (first contact, 18h 10m local time; maximum eclipse, 90% total, 19h 02m, just before sunset; last contact 19h 52m, after sunset), supposedly predicted by the philosopher Thales, ended the battle and the war. The balance of power between Media, Babylonian, Lydia, and Egypt was generally maintained until a new king came to the throne of Persia, a vassal of Media, in 559. KINGS OF PHRYGIA Gordios I 10th cent. Midas I Gordios II Midas II Gordios III Midas III 738-695 Gordios IV 695 Overrun by Cimmerians, annexed by Lydia, 695-626 Lydia entering the scene of Great Power conflict brings Western Anatolia back on the stage of history, for the first time since the fall of the Hittites. Lydia itself has a long legendary history, supposedly dating back to Herakles, but it is not dateable until the time of Gyges. One other Anatolian kingdom, although its history is poorly known and hardly dateable and it is overrun early by the Cimmerians (who would perform the same service for Urart.u), is Phrygia, which is noteworthy, not only because its identity survives into the Roman period (having originated back in the 11th century, at least), but because two noteworthy legends were associated with it. All of its reported kings are named Midas and Gordios. Which is which in the legends is a good question. With one Midas, however, we get the story of the "Midas Touch," that the king wished for, and received, the power to turn anything to gold by touching it. Unfortunately, this was an unconditional power, and there was no way he could touch anything, even food or family, without turning them to gold. So it was a power that would grieve and then starve him. With some Gordios we have a more historical account. The king is supposed to have woven an gigantic knot, attended with the prophecy that the man who could undo it would conquer the world. When Alexander the Great arrived, beheld the knot, and was told of the prophecy, he simply drew his sword and cut the knot. Alexander did, more or less, conquer the world, and we are left with an expression, "cutting the knot," which is probably used most often without awareness of its origin. The knot, however, may not be named after an eponymous king, but after the capital of Phrygia, Gordion (Gordium). This was not far west of Angora, the capital of Galatia. Galatia was founded by Celts who invaded Greece in 279 and entered Anatolia by 278. Most of Phrygia was overrun in this invasion/migration and so came to be overlain by Galatia. KINGS OF EGYPT; LATE PERIOD; XXVI DYNASTY, of Sais Neko (Nechaô) I 672-664 Psamtik (Psammętichos) I 664-610 expels Assyrians, 655 Neko II 610-595 Psamtik II 595-589 Wah.ibre (Aprięs/Uaphris) 589-570 Ah.mose (Amôsis) II 570-526 Psamtik III 526-525 Persian Conquest, 525 The system of Thirty Dynasties was formulated by the Egyptian priest Manethô, writing in Greek under the Ptolemies. The Persians, who overthrew the XXVI Dynasty in 525, were reckoned by Manethô as the XXVII Dynasty. Sometimes the last Persian rulers of Egypt (Artaxerxes III, etc.) are called the "XXXI Dynasty." This proposal is an ancient one, handed down by the Christian Chronographer Julius Africanus. Sometimes the Ptolemies are called the "XXXII Dynasty," but this is a modern suggestion. The XXVI Dynasty represents the greatest flowering of the Egyptian state and civilization since the New Kingdom. Sadly, it was also the last hurrah of Ancient Egypt. The Saite Kings almost seem aware of that themselves. They carried out probably the first official exploration of the pyramids, copying the Old Kingdom art they discovered and introducing their own burials into tombs that were already two thousand years old. This antiquarian project is then found together with the first hints of the Hellenistic Age, since the reliance of the Saite Kings on Greek mercenary soldiers and the significant presence of Greek traders in Egypt launches a Greek presence that soon enough becomes dominant. This may have been a factor in the overthrow of Aprięs by Ah.mose II. Aprięs may have become unpopular by being too closely associated with the Greeks, since the Egyptians didn't like foreigners very much. Then Ah.mose dealt with this by directing the foundation of Naucratis as the emporium and colony for all the Greeks in Egypt. That succeeds admirably, and Egypt continues to draw on Greek help all through the history of the Persian empire. Egyptian Kings continued: Persian Kings, XXVII Dynasty XXVIII, XXIX, & XXX Dynasties Index of Egyptian History GREAT KINGS OF PERSIA ACHAEMENIDS Achaemenes Teispes 675-640 Cyrus I 640-600 Cambyses I 600-559 Cyrus (Kurush) II, the Great 559-530 overthrows Medes, 550; conquers Lydia, 547; conquers Babylon, 539 Cambyses (Kambujiya) II 530-522 conquers Egypt, 525; XXVII DYNASTY of Egypt Darius (Darayavahush) I 522-486 invades Greece, defeated at the battle of Marathon, 490 Xerxes (Xshayarsha) I 486-465 invades Greece, defeated at the battles of Salamis and Platea, 480, 479 Artaxerxes (Artaxshassa) I Longimanus 465-424 Xerxes II 424-423 Darius II 423-404 Egypt breaks away, 404 Artaxerxes II Mnemon 404-359 Artaxerxes III Ochus 359-338 reconquers Egypt, 343; "XXXI" DYNASTY Arses (Arsha) 338-336 Darius III Codomannus 336-330 Macedonian Conquest Cyrus the Great overthrew, in turn, the Medes, Lydians, and Babylonians, suddenly creating an empire far larger than even the Assyrian. Cyrus was better able, through more benign policies, to reconcile his subjects to Persian rule; and the longevity of his empire was one result. The Persian king, like the Assyrian, was also "king of kings," xshayathiya xshayathiyânâm (shâhanshâh in modern Persian) -- "great king," megas basileus, as known by the Greeks. Alexander the Great, after he ultimately overthrew the Persians, deliberately assumed the universal pretensions of the Achaemenid kings, but the division of his empire after his early death eliminates any factual universality until the Roman Empire. KINGS OF MACEDONIA Peridiccas I 7th Cent. Aeropus I Alcetas I d.500 Amyntas I 500-498 Alexander I Philhellene 498-454 Philip I d.c.430 Alcetas II d.c.411 Perdiccas II 454-413 Archelaus Philhellene 413-399 Orest 399-c.397 Aeropus II c.397-c.392 Amyntas II c.392-c.390 Amyntas III c.390-370 Alexander II 370-368 Perdiccas III 368-360 Amyntas IV 360-359 Philip II 359-336 Conquest of Greece at Chaeronea, 338 Alexander III the Great 336-323 Macedonia quietly grew into a power that, under Philip II, would dominate Greece and, in short order, turn against Persia. It is a little odd to think of all these monarchs, so important in Greek history, as not actually being Greek; but, like neighboring Epirus, they are not. A revealing point in this respect is the epithet "Philhellene" of Alexander I. No Greek needs to be called "loving the Greeks." Exactly what the linguistic affinities of the Macedonians were is unclear. That it could be to the later Illyrians, or Thracians, or even modern Albanians, is always possible, but the matter is largely speculative. Whatever it was, the Philhellenism of the Kings soon created a layer of Greek culture that made them seem proper Greeks to everyone except, of course, the actual Greeks. The Macedonian monarchy itself also struck the Greeks as rather un-Greek. When Philip added his own statue to a procession of the Twelve Olympians, his assassination shortly thereafter suggested that the gods had been offended. If so, his son, Alexander III, was untroubled, initiating Hellenistic practice by assuming divine attributes -- something else to scandalize the Greeks, if by then anyone actually cared. The modern Macedonians are actually Slavs, but nearly everything about both the ancient and modern peoples is disputed by them and by Modern Greeks. Genealogy of the Achaemenids Macedonian Kings continued [INLINE] Egypt, which was added to the Persian empire by Cyrus's son Cambyses, frequently revolted against the Persians. The Persian invasion of Greece in 490 was in part to be punishment of the Greeks for helping the Egyptians in these revolts. Since the invasion of 480 was then in revenge for the failure of the invasion of 490, we could say that the consequences of Greek interference in Egypt were persistent. But the Egyptians and the Greeks kept at it, and eventually... EGYPTIAN KINGS; XXVIII DYNASTY, of Sais Amyrteos 404-399 XXIX DYNASTY, of Mendes Nepheritęs I 399-393 Psamműthis 393 Achôris 393-380 Nepheritęs II 380 XXX DYNASTY, of Sebennytus Nekhtnebef, Nectanebęs, Nectanebos I 380-363 Takhôs 362-361 Nekhth.areh.be, Nectanebos II 360-343 Persian Reconquest, 343 A revolt succeeded, and Egypt was independent for sixty years late in the empire. This was the last time Egypt was actually ruled by Egyptians until King Farűk (who was descended from the Albanian Muhammad Ali) was overthrown in 1952. Little is known about this entire period apart from the names given by Manethô and references by Greek historians. The name of the only ruler of the XXVIII Dynasty is not even known from any Egyptian inscriptions. Only the XXX Dynasty, with two substantial reigns, did any kind of building in the old royal manner. After the brief restoration of Persian rule, the next established dynastic government in Egypt was the Ptolemies. The Kings of the XXX did a great deal of building. Nekhtnebef began the temple at Philae, at Aswan, that later was enlarged by Ptolemies and the Romans, and which many centuries later was the last place where hieroglyphics were still being inscribed. Nekhth.areh.be fled before the Persians into Kush. We do not know how long he then lived, but King Nastasen of Kush may have made an attempt to restore him -- despite the way that the XXVI Dynasty Kings had attempted to erase from Egypt the names of all the XXV Dynasty Kings. Persian XXXI Dynasty Ptolemies, "XXXII" Dynasty Index of Egyptian History KINGS OF SPARTA Agiads Euryponids Anaxandridas c.560-520 Ariston c.550-515 Cleomenes I c.520-490 Demaratus c.515-491 Leonidas I 490-480 Leotychidas II 491-469 killed at Thermopylae, 480 Pleistarchus 480-459 Archidamus II 469-427 Pleistoanax 459-409 Agis II 427-400 Pausanias 409-395 Agesilaus II 399-360 Agesipolis I 395-380 Cleombrotus I 380-371 killed at Leuctra, 371 Agesipolis II 371-370 Archidamus III 360-338 Cleomones II 370-309 Agis III 338-331 Eudamidas I 331-c.305 Areus I 309-265 Archidamus IV c.305-275 silver coinage; killed in Chremonidean War, 265 Acrotatus 265-262 Eudamidas II c.275-244 Areus II 262-254 Leonidas II 254-235 Agis IV c.244-241 Eudamidas III 241-c.228 Cleomenes III 235-222 Archidamus V 228-227 tries reforms, defeated by Arcadians, 222; flees to Egypt Eucleidas 227-221 Agesipolis III 219-215 Lycurgus 219-c.212 Pelops c.212-c.200 Nabis c.206-192 assassinated; Sparta annexed to Achaean League, 192 Sparta, along with all the other strange and horrible characteristics of its constitution, had a peculiar dual monarchy. Key moments in Greek history are marked by the death of Spartan kings. The fall of Leonidas to the Persians at Thermopylae (480), with 300 Spartans, is one of the classic moments of world history. The death of Cleombrotus at Leuctra (371), surprised by the tactics of the great Theban general Epaminondas, is nearly as significant, signaling both the end of Spartan hegemony over Greece and a military revolution. Epaminondas liberated Messinia, which Sparta had long enslaved, and Sparta was reduced to Laconia, in the southeast corner of the Peloponnesus. Less epochal but of particular interest is an event of 361. King Agesilaus II was given a banquet by the King of Egypt (this would have been Takhôs of the XXX Dynasty). As customary at Egyptian celebrations, the Egyptians wore cones of fat and perfume on their heads. Agesilaus was so offended by the perfume -- prohibited at Sparta -- that he walked out. Sparta maintained its independence into the Hellenistic Period, but it began to lose its distinctive cultural and political character. Areus I introduced silver coinage, and wealth eroded the old communal and miltary traditions of the city. Indeed, wealth and poverty grew together, and the number of Spartan citizens was gravely reduced as many fell below the property qualification. King Agis IV tried to reverse all this with a program to forgive debts, redistribute land, and recruit new citizens from the perioikoi, the non-citizens who had always lived around Sparta. Agis forced his royal colleague, Leonidas II, into exile; but then Leonidas returned and killed Agis. Nevertheless, the son of Leonidas, Cleomenes III, put all of Agis's reforms into effect. Cleomenes even allowed many Helots, the virtual slaves at the bottom of Spartan society, to buy their freedom. All this attracted the attention and support of the many of the poor elsewhere in Greece, and Spartan affairs took on larger overtones. Cleomenes himself was tempted to expand against the Achaean League, but he was defeated and driven into exile by the Achaeans and Macedonians (222). The last Spartan King, Nabis, tried his own version of Cleomenes' social revolution; but Sparta was annexed by Achaea when Nabis was assassinated. This list is from E.J. Bickerman, Chronology of the Ancient World [Cornell Univesity Press, 1968-1982], p. 126. Bickerman mentions that "the earlist datable kings are Polydoris and Theopompus (first half of the seventh century). A reliable list of kings begins with" those shown. Eponymous Archons of Athens Dialects of Greek History Continued, Hellenistic Monarchs History of Philosophy Philosophy of History Home Page Copyright (c) 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved