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Models of migration to the New World

There have been several *models of migration to the New World* (Human
migration into the Americas) proposed by various academic communities. The
question of how, when and why humans (Paleo-Indians ) first entered the
Americas is of intense interest to archaeologists and anthropologists ,
and has been a subject of heated debate for centuries. Current
understanding of human migration into the Americas derives from advances
in four integrated disciplines: archeology , physical anthropology , DNA
analysis and linguistics .

While there is general agreement that America was first settled from Asia
by people who migrated across Beringia , the pattern of migration, its
timing, and the place of origin in Asia of the peoples who migrated to the
Americas remains unclear.^[2] In recent years researchers have sought to
use familiar tools to validate or reject established theories like Clovis
first . As new discoveries come to light, past hypotheses are reevaluated
and new theories constructed. The archeological evidence suggest that
Paleo-Indians' first "widespread" habitation of the Americas occurred
during the end of the last glacial period , or more specifically what is
known as the late glacial maximum , around 16,500–13,000 years ago.^[3]


Contents

[hide ]

* 1 Understanding the debate 
o 1.1 Timeline of archeological, geological and genetic
evidence

* 2 Genetics 
* 3 Land bridge theory 
o 3.1 Synopsis 
o 3.2 Clovis culture 
o 3.3 Problems with Clovis migration models

* 4 Watercraft migration theories 
o 4.1 Pacific coastal models 
o 4.2 Australia/Oceania model 
o 4.3 Southeast Asians: Paleoindians of the Coast

o 4.4 Atlantic coastal model 
o 4.5 Problems with evaluating coastal migration models

* 5 The Dyukhtai of Northeast Asia 
* 6 See also 
* 7 References 
* 8 Sources 
* 9 Further reading 
* 10 External links 


[edit ] Understanding the debate

The chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general
approaches. The first is the /short chronology theory/ with the first
movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 15,000
– 17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants.^[4] ^[5]
The second belief is the /long chronology theory,/ which proposes that the
first group of people entered the hemisphere at a much earlier date,
possibly 21,000–40,000 years ago,^[6] ^[7] with a much later mass
secondary wave of immigrants.^[8] ^[9] ^[10] However, other theories
propose early migration from Europe, while supporting evidence for
separate origins for "now-extinct" populations may exist.^[11]

One factor fueling the debate is the discontinuity of archaeological
evidence between North and South America Paleo-Indian sites. A roughly
uniform techno-complex pattern known as Clovis appears in North and
Central American sites from at least 13,500 years ago onwards.^[12] South
American sites of equal antiquity do not share the same consistency and
exhibit more diverse cultural patterns. Thus, archaeologists conclude that
the "Clovis-first", and Paleo-Indian time frame do not adequately explain
complex lithic stage tools appearing in South America. Some theorists seek
to develop a colonization model that integrates both North and South
American archaeological records.

The following dates summarize the availability of unobstructed routes
for human migration southward from Beringia during the ice age.^[13]

Dates BCE 	Beringia
"Land Bridge" 	Coastal Route 	Mackenzie Corridor
38,000-34,000 	accessible (open) 	open 	closed
34,000-30,000 	submerged (closed) 	open 	open
30,000-22,000 	accessible (open} 	closed 	open
22,000-15,000 	accessible (open) 	open 	closed
15,000 - today 	submerged (closed) 	open 	open

Indigenous Amerindian genetic studies have concluded that the "colonizing
founders" of the Americas emerged from a single-source ancestral
population that evolved in isolation, likely in Beringia .^[14] ^[15] The
isolation in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years.^[16] ^[17]
^[18] Age estimates based on Y-chromosome micro-satellite place diversity
of the American Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA) at around 10,000 to 15,000 years
ago.^[19] ^[20] This does not address if there were any previous failed
colonization attempts by other genetic groups, as genetic testing can only
address current population ancestral heritage.^[20]

Migrants from northeastern Asia could have walked to Alaska with relative
ease when Beringia was above sea level. But traveling south from Alaska to
the rest of North America may have posed significant challenges. The two
main possible routes proposed south for human migration are: down the
Pacific coast or by way of an interior passage (Mackenzie Corridor) along
the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains .^[17] When the Laurentide and
Cordilleran ice sheets were at their maximum extent, both routes were
likely impassable. The Cordilleran sheet reached across to the Pacific
shore in the west, and its eastern edge abutted the Laurentide, near the
present border between British Columbia and Alberta. Geological evidence
suggests the Pacific coastal route was open for overland travel before
23,000 years ago and after 15,000 years ago. During the coldest millennia
of the last ice age, roughly 23,000 to 19,000 years ago, lobes of glaciers
hundreds of kilometers wide flowed down to the sea.^[15] Deep crevasses
scarred their surfaces, making travel across them dangerous. Even if
people traveled by boat—a claim for which there is currently no direct
archaeological evidence as sea level rise has hidden the old coast line
— the journey would have been difficult with abundant icebergs in the
water. Around 15,000 to 13,000 years ago the coast was presumed ice-free.
Additionally, by this time the climate had warmed, and lands were covered
in grass and trees. Early Paleo-Indian groups could have readily
replenished their food supplies, repaired clothing and tents, and replaced
broken or lost tools.^[15]


Coastal or /watercraft/ theories have broad implications; one being that
Paleo-Indians in North America may not have been purely terrestrial
"big-game hunters", but instead were already adapted to maritime or
semi-maritime lifestyles.^[10] Additionally, it is possible that
"Beringian" (western Alaskan) or European groups migrated into the
northern interior and coastlines only to meet their demise during the last
glacial maximum , approximately 20,000 years ago,^[21] leaving evidence of
occupation in specific localized areas. However they would not be
considered a founding population , unless they had managed to migrate
south, populate and survive the coldest part of the last ice-age.^[22]


[edit ] Timeline of archeological, geological and genetic evidence

Further information: Archaeology of the Americas and Late Glacial Maximum

*40,000 B.C. – 25,000 B.C.*

* Paleolithic people move into Beringia across the /Bering Land Bridge/
into western Alaska .^[8] ^[23]

* Bison (buffalo), mammoths , and mastodons are thought to have migrated
from Asia to America about this time. This would imply a land bridge
between the continents and would have been a food supply.^[24]


	
*30,000–20,000 years ago:*

* Mammoth bones, believed to have been chipped by humans, are found at the
Yukon 's Bluefish Caves ^[25] and Old Crow Flats ^[26] sites in the 1970s
and 1980s by archeologist Jacques Cinq-Mars and his team.^[27]

* In 2004, Albert Goodyear of the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology
and Anthropology announced that radiocarbon dating of a bit of charcoal
found in the Topper Site near Allendale County, South Carolina .^[28]
However, these deposits may have been made by forest fires.^[28]

(Note: The dates given for the Old Crow and Topper digs have not been
completely accepted by the archaeology community.)^[10] ^[29]

* Geneticists have variously estimated that peoples of Asia and the
Americas were part of the same population from 21,000 to 42,000 years
ago.^[9] 

* Ice-free corridor running north and south through Alberta and the
continental glacier called Laurentide ice sheet . Introduced by geologists
in the 1950s when stone tools were found in the Grimshaw, Bow River and in
Lethbridge Alberta, under glacial sand and gravel are believed to be
/pre-glacial/ and therefore may indicate nomadic humans occupied the
area.^[30] A child's skull found in 1961 near Taber, Alberta is believed
to be one of the oldest inhabitants discovered in Alberta.^[31]

(Note: The conclusions reached in Alberta on dates have not been
accepted by the entire archaeology community.)^[32] 

* Siberian mammoth hunters believed to have penetrated far into the Arctic
where ice-free corridors north during the time are believed found. Theory
first introduced by geologist in the late 1970s when core samples indicate
ice is no older than 17,000 year old.^[15]


*23,000–16,500 years ago:*

* The Ice Age entombs the northern hemisphere in glaciers , cutting off
routes from Siberia to the south.^[33]

* 2002 the presence of the X haplogroup was found in a small percentage of
modern indigenous Americans that is known to exist in a few locations in
Europe and the Middle East. Subsequent research indicated that the
European DNA was not the result of genetic mixing after Columbus. However
the time estimates on haplogroup X entering Americas is around 15,000 to
20,000 years ago.^[34]

* Genetic evidence (2007–2009) suggests the Beringia population first
genetic diversification from Asian populations occurred.^[35] An article
in the American Journal of Human Genetics states "Here we show, by using
86 complete mitochondrial genomes , that all Native American haplogroups ,
including haplogroup X, were part of a single founding population.^[9]
^[35] ^[36]

*16,500–13,000 years ago:*

* Geologists report this is when receding glaciers reopened an ice-free
corridor through Canada between Alaska and the rest of the Americas.
Massive flooding would have created large lakes covering vast areas of
north America with glacial waters.^[37]

* Age estimates based on Y-chromosome micro-satellite place diversity of
the American Q-Haplo at around 10,000 to 15,000 years ago.^[20]

* Mass extinction of large fauna begins due to climate change and perhaps
hunting. The Dire Wolf , Smilodon , Cave Lion , Giant beaver , Ground
sloth , Mammoth, American Mastodon , American Camel , American Equine ,
and American lion all become extinct by 11,000 years ago.^[38]

* Pre-Clovis sites uncovered from 1973-1978 Meadowcroft Rockshelter in
Pennsylvania site indicated occupancy as early as 16,000 years ago and
possibly as long as 19,000 years ago. Dates in excess of 19,000 years have
been claimed for the deepest occupation layer uncovered.^[39]

* pre-Clovis sites found in Monte Verde , located along /Chinchihuapi
Creek/, in Chile . A crew of eighty people, led by Tom Dillehay of the
University of Kentucky , excavated the site from 1977-1985.^[40] A coastal
migration could explain how people arrived in Monte Verde.^[40]

* 2000, archaeologists say people were living at Cactus Hill , Virginia
where stone tools and charcoal from a fire pit are found.^[41]

*15,000–13,000 years ago:*

* The /Taima Taima/ mastodon kill/butchering site in Falcon , Venezuela
was first excavated by J.M. Cruxent in the 1960s and 1970s. It is one of
the earliest archaeological sites that is pre-Clovis. In l976 a broken El
Jobo point (red arrow) was found inside the pubic cavity of a partially
disarticulated and butchered young mastodon whose bones had been cut, with
a jasper flake found near the left ulna of the animal.^[42] * /Peñon
women/ found by an ancient lake bed near Mexico City in 1959. Mention is
made of the possibility of Solutrean peoples migrating to the area 15,000
to 20,000 years ago.^[43] ^[44]

* El Abra sites located in the valley east of the city of Zipaquirá ,
Colombia . First excavated by Gonzalo Correal and associates in the late
1970s and early 1980s. 3,072 pieces found indicate it was inhabited
continuously for over 7,000 years.^[45]

* At Paisley Caves in the Cascade Range of Oregon , archaeologists find a
scattering of human coprolites , or fossil feces in 2003.^[46] The
mitochondrial DNA extracted from coprolites linked the cave dwellers to
two genetic groups of early Americans that arose 14,000 to 18,000 years
ago.^[46] This two genetic groups were the founding Paleo-Indians and
later Na-Dené migration.^[16] ^[47]

*13,500 – 12,000 years ago:*

* The Ice Age is ending, melting glaciers have raised sea levels 120
meters and submerged the land bridge between Alaska and Siberia. Geologic
evidence indicates that by 11,500 years ago, the Cordilleran and
Laurentide ice sheets had retreated far enough to open a habitable
ice-free corridor between them. The exposed land was dry and probably
restored enough to support plants and animals, which the migrating
hunter-gatherer followed.^[48] * *Clovis theory* – People were living
near Clovis, New Mexico where tools from this era were found in the 1930s.
This find gave rise to the widely held "Clovis First" theory that people
spread through the Americas only after the Ice Age.^[49] The Clovis
culture was believed replaced by several more localized regional cultures,
such as the Folsom tradition , from the time of the Younger Dryas cold
climate period.^[9]

* Peru coastal region inhabitants fished with nets and bone hooks,
collecting seafood such as crabs and sea urchins.^[50]


*12,000–10,000 years ago:*

* Ice age over, climate similar to present temperatures. Old migration
theories believe first widespread migration in South America and
subsequently a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas,
introduced in the 1930s.^[51] * The Maritimes of Canada are settled by
Paleo-Indians . Sites in and around Belmont, Nova Scotia have evidence
indicating small seasonal hunting camps, perhaps re-visited over many
generations.^[52] * Luzia Woman 's skull and other bones excavated in the
Lagoa Santa , Brazil area by French archaeologist Annette Laming-Emperaire
in the 1970s.^[53] By 2006, Lagoa Santa sites had produced no fewer than
75 well-preserved ancient skulls.^[53]

* 1994, University of California, Riverside anthropologist R. Erv Taylor
examined seventeen of the Spirit Cave artifacts near Fallon, Nevada from
the 1940s using mass spectrometry. The results indicated that a mummy was
approximately 9,400–10,200 years old — older than any previously known
North American mummy.^[54]

* Unique markers found in DNA recovered from an Alaskan tooth were found
in specific coastal tribes, and were rare in any of the other indigenous
peoples in the Americas . This finding lends substantial credence to a
migration theory that at least one set of early peoples moved south along
the west coast of the Americas in boats.^[55]

*9,000–8,000 years ago:*

* Remains, known as Kennewick Man , are found in 1996 on the Columbia
River near Kennewick, Washington . A skull and more than 300 bones and
bone fragments were found at the site, making up among the oldest, best
preserved, and most complete human remains ever found in North America.
Initial radiocarbon dating indicated the remains were between 7,000 and
9,500 years old.^[56] A leaf-shaped projectile found on the body was long,
broad and had serrated edges, all fitting the definition of a Cascade
point .

This type of point is a feature of the Cascade phase , occurring in the
archaeological record from roughly 6000 to over 8500 years ago.

* 1930s-1990s no major Central American archaeological sites that go back
more than 9,000 years have been found. Isolated finds of stone tools in
Belize , Nicaragua and Costa Rica indicates that such sites almost
certainly exist. Lack of funding for exploration in the areas has
postponed likely finds.^[53]

* Tehuacan Valley of Mexico – people are living in rock shelters and
using stone cooking pots, which were left in the center of the hearth.
Maize was to be used in the same valley between 7,000–6,000 years
ago.^[57]


[edit ] Genetics

Schematic illustration of maternal geneflow in and out of Beringia.Colours
of the arrows correspond to approximate timing of the events and are
decoded in the coloured time-bar. The initial peopling of Berinigia
(depicted in light yellow) was followed by a standstill after which the
ancestors of indigenous Americans spread swiftly all over the New World
while some of the Beringian maternal lineages–C1a-spread westwards. More
recent (shown in green) genetic exchange is manifested by back-migration
of A2a into Siberia and the spread of D2a into north-eastern America that
post-dated the initial peopling of the New World.

Schematic illustration of maternal (mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of
Beringia. For more details on this topic, see Indigenous Amerindian
genetics .

Indigenous Amerindian genetics primarily focus on Human Y-chromosome DNA
haplogroups and Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups . "Y-DNA" is passed
solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is
passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes.
Neither recombines , and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance
mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic
material.^[58] Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from
mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly.^[59] AtDNA is generally
used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the
entire human genome and related isolated populations .^[59]

The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Amerindians experienced two very
distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the
Americas , and secondly with European colonization of the Americas .^[20]
^[60] ^[61]

The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages,
zygosity mutations and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous
Amerindian populations .^[60]


Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea
coast line , with an initial 15, 000 to 20,000-year layover on Beringia
for the small founding population .^[16] ^[20] ^[22] The micro-satellite
diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America
indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the
initial colonization of the region.^[62] The Na-Dené , Inuit and
Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations,
however are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA
and atDNA mutations.^[47] ^[63] ^[64] This suggests that the earliest
migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived
from later migrant populations.^[65] ^[66]


[edit ] Land bridge theory



Berengia -Wisconsin glaciation

Also known as the Bering Strait Theory or Beringia theory, the Land Bridge
theory has been widely accepted since the 1930s. This model of migration
into the New World proposes that people migrated from Siberia into Alaska
, tracking big game animal herds . They were able to cross between the two
continents by a land bridge called the Bering Land Bridge , which spanned
what is now the Bering Strait , during the Wisconsin glaciation , the last
major stage of the Pleistocene beginning 50,000 years ago and ending some
10,000 years ago, when ocean levels were 60 metres (200 ft) lower than
today. This information is gathered using oxygen isotope records from
deep-sea cores . An exposed land bridge that was at least 1,000 miles wide
existed between Siberia and the western coast of Alaska. In the "short
chronology" version, from the archaeological evidence gathered, it was
concluded that this culture of big game hunters crossed the Bering Strait
at least 12,000 years ago and could have eventually reached the southern
tip of South America by 11,000 years ago.


[edit ] Synopsis

At some point during the last Ice Age , about 17,000 years ago, as the ice
sheets advanced and sea levels fell, people first migrated from the
Eurasian landmass to the Americas . These nomadic hunters were following
game herds from Siberia across what is today the Bering Strait into Alaska
, and then gradually spread southward. Based upon the distribution of
Amerind languages and language families , a movement of tribes along the
Rocky Mountain foothills and eastward across the Great Plains to the
Atlantic seaboard is assumed to have occurred at least some 13,000 to
10,000 years ago.


[edit ] Clovis culture

Further information: Clovis culture and Clovis point


Map showing the approximate location of the ice-free corridor and specific
Paleoindian sites (Clovis theory ).

This big game-hunting culture has been labeled the Clovis culture, and is
primarily identified with fluted projectile points. The culture received
its name from artifacts found near Clovis, New Mexico , the first evidence
of this tool complex, excavated in 1932. The Clovis culture ranged over
much of North America and appeared in South America. The culture is
identified by distinctive "Clovis point", a flaked flint spear-point with
a notched flute by which it was inserted into a shaft; it could then be
removed from the shaft for traveling. This flute is one characteristic
that defines the Clovis point complex.

Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and
by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis
materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050
and 10,800 radiocarbon years B.P. (before present ). This evidence
suggests that the culture flowered somewhat later and for a shorter period
of time than previously believed. Michael R. Waters of Texas A&M
University in College Station and Thomas W. Stafford Jr., proprietor of a
private-sector laboratory in Lafayette, Colorado and an expert in
radiocarbon dating attempted to determine the dates of the Clovis period.
The heyday of Clovis technology has typically been set between 11,500 and
10,900 radiocarbon years B.P. (The radiocarbon calibration is disputed for
this period, but the widely used IntCal04 calibration puts the dates at
13,300 to 12,800 calendar years B.P.). In a controversial move, Waters and
Stafford conclude that no fewer than 11 of the 22 Clovis sites with
radiocarbon dates are "problematic" and should be disregarded—including
the type site in Clovis, New Mexico. They argue that the datable samples
could have been contaminated by earlier material. This contention was
received as highly controversial by many in the archaeological community.

Clovis-type artifacts seem to disappear from the archaeological record
after the hypothesized Younger Dryas impact event roughly 12,900 years
before the present. The effects of the event possibly caused a decline in
post-Clovis human populations and shifts in culture and behavior
patterns.^[67]


[edit ] Problems with Clovis migration models

Significant problems arise with the Clovis migration model. If Clovis
people radiated south after entering the New World and eventually reached
the southern tip of South America by 11,000 years ago, this leaves only a
short time span to populate the entire hemisphere.^[/citation needed /]
Another complication for the Clovis-only theory arose in 1997, when a
panel of authorities inspected the Monte Verde site in Chile , concluding
that the radiocarbon evidence predates Clovis sites in the North American
Midwest by at least 1,000 years. This supports the theory of a primary
coastal migration route that moved south along the coastline faster than
those that migrated inland into the central areas of the Americas. Many
excavations have uncovered evidence that subsistence patterns of early
Americans included foods such as turtles , shellfish , and tubers . This
is quite a change of diet from the big game mammoths , long-horn bison ,
horse , and camels that early Clovis hunters apparently followed east into
the New World.

At the Topper archaeological site (located along the banks of the Savannah
River near Allendale, South Carolina ) investigated by University of South
Carolina archaeologist Dr. Albert Goodyear , charcoal material recovered
in association with purported human artifacts returned radiocarbon dates
of up to 50,000 years BP . This would indicate the presence of humans well
before the last glacial period . Nevertheless, considerable doubt over the
validity of these findings has been raised by many other researchers, and
the pre-Clovis Topper dates remain controversial.

Pre-Clovis dates have been claimed for several sites in South America ,
but these early dates have yet to be verified unequivocally.

Recent discoveries of human coprolites (fossilized feces) found deeply
buried in an Oregon cave indicate the presence of humans in North America
as much as 1,200 years prior to the Clovis culture.^[68]


[edit ] Watercraft migration theories

Earlier finds have led to a pre-Clovis culture theory encompassing
different migration models with an expanded chronology to supersede the
"Clovis-first" theory.


[edit ] Pacific coastal models

Main article: Coastal Migration

Pacific models propose that people reached the Americas via water travel,
following coastlines from northeast Asia into the Americas. Coastlines are
unusually productive environments because they provide humans with access
to a diverse array of plants and animals from both terrestrial and marine
ecosystems. While not exclusive of land-based migrations, the Pacific
'coastal migration theory' helps explain how early colonists reached areas
extremely distant from the Bering Strait region, including sites such as
Monte Verde in southern Chile and Taima-Taima in western Venezuela . Two
cultural components were discovered at Monte Verde near the Pacific Coast
of Chile. The youngest layer is radiocarbon dated at 12,500 radiocarbon
years (~14,000 cal BP)^[/citation needed /] and has produced the remains
of several types of seaweeds collected from coastal habitats. The older
and more controversial component may date back as far as 33,000 years, but
few scholars currently accept this very early component.^[/citation needed
/]

Other coastal models, dealing specifically with the peopling of the
Pacific Northwest and California coasts, have been advocated by
archaeologists Knut Fladmark, Roy Carlson, James Dixon, Jon Erlandson,
Ruth Gruhn, and Daryl Fedje. In a 2007 article in the Journal of Island
and Coastal Archaeology, Erlandson and his colleagues proposed a corollary
to the coastal migration theory—the kelp highway hypothesis—arguing
that productive kelp forests supporting similar suites of plants and
animals would have existed near the end of the Pleistocene around much of
the Pacific Rim from Japan to Beringia, the Pacific Northwest, and
California, as well as the Andean Coast of South America. Once the
coastlines of Alaska and British Columbia had deglaciated about 16,000
years ago, these kelp forest (along with estuarine, mangrove, and coral
reef) habitats would have provided an ecologically similar migration
corridor, entirely at sea level, and essentially unobstructed.


[edit ] Australia/Oceania model

As early as 1787 Chilean naturalist Juan Ignacio Molina mentioned the
possibility of South America being populated from south Asia through the
"infinite island chains" of the Pacific while north America could have
been populated from Siberia.^[69] Some anthropologists such as Paul Rivet
have proposed that peoples of Oceania or southeast Asia crossed the
Pacific Ocean and arrived in South America long before the Siberian
hunter-gatherers. These hypothetical Pre-Siberian American Aborigines

populated much of South America before being nearly exterminated and/or
absorbed by the Siberian migrants coming from the north. Some of the
theories involve a southward migration from or through Australia and
Tasmania , hopping Subantarctic islands and then proceeding along the
coast of Antarctica and/or southern ice sheets to the tip of South America
sometime during the last glacial maximum .

There have been well-dated stratigraphic studies that point to people
entering Australia some 40,000 years ago. At this period Australia was not
connected to another continent, which leads to the assumption that it was
reached by watercraft . If Australia was reached in this fashion, some
reason that the New World could have been reached in the same way.
Proponents of this model have pointed to cultural and phenotypical
similarities between the Aboriginals of Australia and the Selknam and
Yaghan tribes of southern Patagonia . The theory of Australoid migration
to the Americas has earned little scientific support as there is no
genetic evidence matching indigenous Australians with South American
populations. This model is taught in Chilean schools together with the
land bridge model^[/citation needed /] .

A recent study claimed that the Mapuche pre-Columbian Araucana chicken
came from Polynesia by analysing their DNA ; [3] [4] [5] [6] this suggests
a more recent contact between the Mapuche and Polynesia. Another recent
study has contradicted this claim stating that the DNA found in the
chicken bone was closer to post colonial European chickens. [7] [8]


One of the earliest known sites of human occupation in the Americas, Monte
Verde , lies within what was later to become Huilliche territory, although
there is currently no demonstrated link between the Monte Verde people and
the Mapuche.


[edit ] Southeast Asians: Paleoindians of the Coast

The boat-builders from Southeast Asia may have been one of the earliest
groups to reach the shores of North America . One theory suggests people
in boats followed the coastline from the Kurile Islands to Alaska down the
coasts of North and South America as far as Chile [2 62; 7 54, 57]. The
Haida nation on the Queen Charlotte Islands off the coast of British
Columbia may have originated from these early Asian mariners between
25,000 and 12,000. Early watercraft migration would also explain the
habitation of coastal sites in South America such as Pikimachay Cave in
Peru by 20,000 years ago and Monte Verde in Chile by 13,000 years ago [6
30; 8 383].

/"'There was boat use in Japan 20,000 years ago,' says Jon Erlandson, a
University of Oregon anthropologist. 'The Kurile Islands (north of Japan)
are like stepping stones to Beringia,' the then continuous land bridging
the Bering Strait. Migrants, he said, could have then skirted the
tidewater glaciers in Canada right on down the coast." [7 64]'/


[edit ] Atlantic coastal model

Archaeologists Dennis Stanford and Bruce Bradley champion the coastal
Atlantic route. Their Solutrean Hypothesis is also based on evidence from
the Clovis complex, but instead traces the origins of the Clovis
toolmaking style to the Solutrean culture of Ice Age Western Europe. They
have hypothesized that Solutrean hunters and fishers, living like Eskimos
, may have worked their way along the southern margins of the Atlantic sea
ice to North America, getting food, and blubber -oil for heating, by
killing fish and seals, hauling out on ice each night. Their argument is
based on technological analysis of the similarities between Solutrean and
Clovis flint-knapping techniques, and that Clovis sites are generally
found in eastern North America and seem to have radiated westward^[70] .
Stanford and Bradley are currently working on publishing a book on the
Solutrean hypothesis.^[/citation needed /]

Other Atlantic migration proponents include the French archaeologist Remy
Cottevieille-Giraudet, who in the 1930s suggested a European Cro-Magnon
origin of the Algonquian peoples . In 1963, Emerson Greenman proposed a
hypothetical Atlantic migration during the Upper Paleolithic, also citing
New World similarities with Solutrean tools as well as art. He suggested
that the Beothuk people of Newfoundland , among others, may have been at
least partial descendants of that migration. According to a research
report on Beothuk DNA published in 2007, "the data do not lend credence to
the proposed idea that the Beothuk (specifically, Nonosabasut ) were of
admixed (European-Native American) descent."^[71]


[edit ] Problems with evaluating coastal migration models

The coastal migration models provide a different perspective on migration
to the New World, but they are not without their own problems. One of the
biggest problems is that global sea levels have risen over 100 metres
since the end of the last glacial period, and this has submerged the
ancient coastlines which maritime people would have followed into the
Americas. Finding sites associated with early coastal migrations is
extremely difficult—and systematic excavation of any sites found in
deeper waters is challenging and expensive. If there was an early
pre-Clovis coastal migration, there is always the possibility of a
“failed colonization.” Another problem that arises is the lack of hard
evidence found for a “long chronology” theory. No sites have yet
produced a consistent chronology older than about 12,500 radiocarbon years
(~14,500 calendar years)^[/citation needed /] , but South America has
still seen only limited research on the possibility of early coastal
migrations.


[edit ] The Dyukhtai of Northeast Asia

Archaeological sites found in Dyukhtai Cave and other sites in the Aldan
River valley have yielded remains of a culture that may be a potential
Paleoindian ancestor. This culture occupied the region from 35,000-12,000
years ago. The Dyukhtai or similar Northeast Asian cultures may have
entered the New World through Beringia and spread into British Columbia [1
140]. It is thought that they pursued Pleistocene mammals such as the
giant beaver, goats, elk, ancient reindeer (early caribou), horses, Yukon
camels, steppe bison, musk ox, mastodons, and woolly mammoths.

The chief characteristic of the Dyukhtai was their manufacture of
microliths or microblades . Microblades are small flakes less than 1 1/4
inches long, with a sharp edge and a "backed" or blunted edge that could
be guided with the index finger to sever meat from a carcass. Microblades
could also be incorporated into composite tools such as an arrow or
sickle. Thousands of microblades have been found at upper Paleolithic
Stone Age sites. They have been found north of Mongolia together with
projectile points and hand-carved ivory statuettes. The earliest of
several sites there has been dated at 45,000 years ago. Microblades
appeared in Japan by 20,000 during the LGM when the island was still a
peninsula and reachable by land [1 144, 202; 3 189-191].

Microblade manufacture was an important event in human history and its
appearance corresponds roughly to the end of the Middle Paleolithic 60,000
years ago. Over 98% of all human history is encompassed by the period of
time that began with the appearance of /Australopithecus afarensis/ [e.g.
"Lucy] and ended with the manufacture of microblades by lower-upper Stone
Age cultures such as the "Dyukhtai".


[edit ] See also

* Early human migrations 
* Dené-Yeniseian languages 
* Historical migration 
* History of Mesoamerica (Paleo-Indian)

* Paleo-Indians period (Canada)

* Norse colonization of the Americas

* Olmec alternative origin speculations

* Pre-Columbian Andalusian-Americas contact theories

* Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories

* Recent African origin of modern humans

* Solutrean hypothesis 
* Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact



[edit
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[edit ] Further reading

1. Gowlett, John. Ascent To Civilization. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1984.
2. Petit, Charles W. "Rediscovering America." U. S. News & World
Report, October 12, 1998.
3. Fagan, Brian M. The Journey from Eden. London: Thames and Hudson,
1990.
4. Gilsen, Leland. "Pleistocene Adaptations." May 29, 1999. Oregon
Archaeology: Prehistory. June 2, 2000 [1].
5. Beringia Research. Yukon Beringia Interpretative Centre. Dec. 7,
2000 [2].
6. Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson. Atlas of Ancient
America. New York: Facts On File Publications, 1986.
7. Begley. Sharon and Andrew Murr. "The First Americans." Newsweek,
April 26, 1999.
8. Roosevelt, A. C. et al. "Paleoindian Cave Dwellers in the Amazon:
The Peopling of the Americas." Science, April 19, 1996.
9. Price, Douglas and Gary Feinmen, editors. "Monte Verde Early
Hunter-Gatherers in South America." Images of the Past. 1997.
10. Surovell, Todd A. "Early Paleoindian Women, Children, Mobility,
and Fertility." American Antiquity, 65 (3), 2000